The Symbolism of Janies Hair in Zora Neale Hurstons...

Zora Neale Hurston was known for expressing the facets of African-American culture in her books, but her novel Their Eyes Were Watching God has elements of gender studies as well. Throughout the book, Janie’s life experiences serve as a metaphor for the historical struggle of both women and Black Americans to achieve equal rights, and various symbols throughout the book are significant in this context. Janie’s hair, in particular, is the clearest example of a symbol that represents her power and individuality. Two of the most important instances in which Hurston uses Janie’s hair as a symbol are when Janie’s hair serves as a symbol of Jody Stark’s oppression and when Janie’s hair represents her ability to have greater power than others due to its Caucasian nature. In Janie’s marriage with Jody Starks, her hair is representative of her power when Jody represses it and when he indirectly liberates it by dying. At first, Jody draws Janie in with his own authority, self-confidence, and good looks. Janie seems infatuated with these characteristics; yet, ironically, she comes to loathe them, since she realizes that authority creates an air of condescension, self-confidence causes arrogance, and good looks eventually become mundane. Jody, in addition, seems to be extremely misogynistic and treats women like property. He accordingly believes that oppressing them as he sees fit is an acceptable manner of treatment, which is shown when he forces Janie to constantly wear a head-rag inShow MoreRelatedOprah Had No Eyes to See Her Make a Monstrosity1500 Words   |  6 PagesOprah Had No Eyes to See Her Make a Monstrosity Oprah’s movie did Zora Neale Hurston’s novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God, an injustice when Oprah changed the entire purpose of the book. The changes made to characters, relationships, and the effects of symbolism makes the story unrecognizable. Their Eyes Were Watching God transforms into a love story and the title changes which alters the entire plot, even some settings change. Oprah truly slaughtered a work of art and her ignorance of the meaningRead MoreThe Life of American Women in Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God895 Words   |  4 PagesZora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God is a novel illustrating the life of an African American woman that finds her voice through many trials and tribulations. At the heart of the story, Hurston portrays a protagonist who moves from a passive state to independence, from passive woman with no voice who is dominated by her husband to a woman who can think and act for herself. Hurston ac hieves the greater theme of Their Eyes Were Watching God, of self-expression and independence throughRead More Powerful Symbols in Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston1407 Words   |  6 PagesPowerful Symbols in Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston       In 1937, upon the first publication of Their Eyes Were Watching God, the most influential black writer of his time, Richard Wright, stated that the novel carries no theme, no message, [and] no thought.   Wrights powerful critique epitomized a nations attitude toward Zora Neale Hurstons second novel. African-American critics read a book that they felt satisfied the white mans stereotype of African-American cultureRead MoreVarious Types Of Literary Devices1182 Words   |  5 Pagesthe early 1900s down in the South, gender roles and their independence was very prominent. Women who were white started to gain more independence, and their low paying jobs gave them a little more freedom. They started to develop their own identity instead of being identified by their husbands. While women who were African Americans did not get the same independence that white women got.They were still being identified based on their husbands, and they still had do all the responsibilities of a mother Read MoreA Womens Search for Identity in Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God729 Words   |  3 Pagesâ€Å"It’s uh known fact, Pheoby, you got tuh go there tuh know there†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hurston 192). The theme of identity can be seen throughout Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God, of a story of a women’s journey for self-identification. Through symbolic imagery, such as the pear tree, Janie’s hair, and the horizon, Hurston ultimately shows a women’s quest for her identity. As a young teenager, Janie becomes infatuated with the idea of an idealistic romance: â€Å"She saw a dust-bearing bee sink into theRead MoreWhose eyes were watching God?1400 Words   |  6 PagesWhose eyes were watching God? In the movie Their Eyes Were Watching God, Oprah Winfrey manipulates events that happened in the book by Zora Neale Hurston. Oprah morphs many relationships in the movie Their Eyes Were Watching God. She changes the role of gender, and also makes changes in Janie’s character strength. Oprah also changes the symbolism in the movie to where some important symbols in the book change to less important roles. Oprah changes many important events in the book Their Eyes WereRead MoreTheir Eyes Were Watching God, Written by Zora Neale Hurston1374 Words   |  6 PagesTheir Eyes Were Watching God, written by Zora Neale Hurston, is a novel about Janie Crawford, a â€Å"light† african american woman living in the 1930’s. Janie’s life is chronicled as she tells her friend her story: a pear tree, a dead mule, three marriages, and a hurricane later the reader and the listener, Phoeby, feels they had â€Å"‘done growed ten feet higher from jus’ listeninâ⠂¬â„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã¢â‚¬  (192) to her story. However, overall Hurston wants the reader to understand that they have to find out about living for themselvesRead MoreOprah Winfrey And The Half Made Movie1490 Words   |  6 Pagesadaptation of Their Eyes Were Watching God, Oprah Winfrey fails to produce a film that remains authentic to the original work. Janie’s character converts into one that seems entirely different, and her relationships exhibit alterations. Oprah’s fabricated love story completely shadows Zora Neale Hurston’s original theme, as well as her literary devices. The film parades falsified information, which degrades the original content of the novel. In the film version of Their Eyes Were Watching God, Oprah shiftsRead More Female Spirituality and Sexuality Explored Through Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God and Tell My Horse1647 Words   |  7 PagesZora Neale Hurston, while living in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, was researching voodoo on the most scholarly level. She was studying with Haiti’s most well known hougans and mambos, or priests and priestesses. At this time she was gathering knowledge about voodoo so she could write the text, Tell My Horse. Also, at this same time Hurston had finished writing, Their Eyes Were Watching God in only seven short weeks. A close reading of this novel provides the reader with a relationship between voodoo andRead MoreComparing Zora Neale Hurston And Jacob Lawrence1809 Words   |  8 PagesA Comparison of Zora Neale Hurston and Jacob Lawrence The Harlem Renaissance was a period most notably known for music and art regarding racial divides. Stemming from this broad observation, though, is a series of ideas, motifs, and influences that would construct the central theme of the era, making the period iconic for the development of African American culture. As this time was one of communication and collaboration, these themes readily overlapped between works. Zora Neale Hurston, in her

Understanding Crime Essays - 1576 Words

The Unabomber Tracing the steps of the criminal justice system through history one discovers that the main goal is to detain the suspected criminal(s) and restore security to society in general. Since the beginning of the criminal justice system attempts to understand the inner workings of a criminal mind and behavior which cause these deviations from normal thinking or acting have been a complex issue of comprehension. What causes people to exhibit certain behaviors that make them criminals? Why are the minds of criminals so hard to understand? What makes criminals act maliciously towards any aspect of society; whether it is towards people or just ideas upheld by people within society? No one really has a concrete answer to any of these†¦show more content†¦Kaczynski’s main goal was to wipe out technology or anyone who believed that technology was the way of the future. Kaczynski’s main targets were professors at technological schools or people involved with computers or co mputer science teachers. Initially, the bombs were of amateur quality and did not cause much harm. The bombs were all hand crafted and carried the inscription â€Å"FC† at one point was reported to stand for â€Å"F*@k Computers,† but it was later found to mean simply â€Å"Freedom Club.† A majority of Kaczynski’s attacks were against computer stores, computer science professors, and programming specialists. What was Kaczynski trying to gain freedom from; all signs and motivation for Kaczynski’s attacks point to his desire for freedom from technology? In 1995, Kaczynski mailed several letters outlining his goals and demanding that his paper Industrial Society and Its Future which has been commonly called the â€Å"Unabomber Manifesto.† The main argument of Industrial Society and Its Future is that technological progress is undesirable, can be stopped, and in fact should be stopped in order to free people from the unnatural demands of technology, so that they could return to a happier, simpler life close to nature. Kaczynski argued that it was necessary to cause a social crash, before society became any worse. He believes a collapse of civilization is likely to occur at some point in theShow MoreRelatedCriminology : A Common Sense Understanding Of Crime2271 Words   |  10 PagesCriminology, what are its key tasks and questions, and how does it challenge a â€Å"common sense understanding of crime†. As human beings we all see and hear about crimes from a day to day basis. We all question why we have crime and what makes a person commit a crime. Criminology is the definition of our crime today, it defines many aspects and elements that challenge our common sense understanding of crime. The term ‘Criminology’ was first introduced into the English language in Garland 1988 by a criminologistRead MoreUnderstanding The General Strain Theory On Crime3833 Words   |  16 Pages Understanding the General Strain Theory on Crime Codie Bastress University Wisconsin Oshkosh Abstract This paper explores Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory by helping to explain what it is as well as research that has been conducted to support it. A majority of the articles used in this paper help try and explain or define what GST is as well as attempt to define its components. This paper will then help better understand some of the research that has been done regarding GSTRead MoreUnderstanding Hate Crimes And Recognizing Victims1464 Words   |  6 PagesHate crime is defined as a â€Å"crime in which the perpetrators conduct is motivated by bias or prejudice toward the actual or perceived race, colour, religion, national origin, gender, disability, or sexual orientation of another group or individual.† (Winterdyk, 390). This kind of crime is not new to Canada and it can be seen through the treatment of Aboriginals in Canada, as well as the current treatment of refugees from areas in the Middle East. Hate crimes are a heinous crime that deprives individualsRead M ore1.Understanding The Criminal Behavior System And Crime1683 Words   |  7 Pages1. Understanding the criminal behavior system and crime typologies that the book demonstrates; it is kind of hard to distinguish what type of serial killer Robert Durst is. Judging from the book examples of different type of serial killers, I would have to say Robert Durst is a hybrid serial killer. While some of his actions from the video series, â€Å"The Jinx†, lead me to feel as if he was an expedience killer who wants to protect themselves from a perceived threat as the book states. Some of Durst’sRead MoreThe Influence of the Media in Shaping the Publics Understanding of Crime1878 Words   |  8 PagesMedia in Shaping the Publics Understanding of Crime With the rise of the mass media throughout the world, predominantly the Western world, the issue of media influence has become a serious one. Due to media’s primary obsession with crime and violence, it definitely has a negative influence on shaping peoples understanding of crime by exaggerating it. A branch of media which always exaggerates on some crime e.g. terrorist attacks then other crimes is TV news this is basicallyRead MoreMain assumptions of Strain Theory and its contributions to understanding crime1848 Words   |  8 Pagesï » ¿Main assumptions of Strain Theory and its contributions to understanding crime In general, a group of theories, called Strain Theory, contends that most people in society share the same goals of achieving wealth and success. But in every society there is division between lower class and their wealthier counterparts. Those people from lower class don’t have the same opportunities that those from upper class do. As a result, lower class gets frustrated because they are not able to achieve upperRead MoreThe Contribution of the Labelling Theory to Our Understanding of Crime and Deviancy480 Words   |  2 PagesTheory to Our Understanding of Crime and Deviancy We can call a label, or define it as; a mark, name, or even badge. Something is only deviant, or becomes deviant because someone has been successful in labelling it as, deviancy is ambiguous, definitions differ from society to society or even culture to culture. Calling something deviant is a reaction to a type of behaviour. The labelling theory is very complex, it asks why some people committing crimes are named deviantRead MoreCompare and Contrast two criminological approaches to understanding the commission of crime1081 Words   |  5 Pagestwo criminological approaches to understanding the commission of crime.† Criminologists seek to understand the commission of crime in a given society, attempting to figure out why certain crimes occur, and then to study how these can be prevented, and deterred by individuals. The two key approaches I will examine in this assignment is that of the early Classicalist approach, and the opposing Positivist approach, each of which are crucial for understanding modern criminology today. InRead MoreUnderstanding The Way That Real Life Organized Crime Situations918 Words   |  4 Pagesone that focuses on particular groups of people, and one that focuses on particular types of crime. Both definitions have some validity, and neither is sufficient to completely describe the global reality. Understanding the way that real-life organized crime situations fit these two definitions makes a big difference in the ways we might go about solving these problems. When most people say â€Å"organized crime†, it is often a shorthand way of referring to groups of people, usually â€Å"the mafia† and similarRead MoreEvaluate the usefulness of Marxist theory to our understanding of crime and deviance1201 Words   |  5 PagesEvaluate the usefulness of Marxist theory to our understanding of crime and deviance (40 marks) Synopticity - Crime Deviance sociological theory Marxist explanations of crime and deviance, like their work on other areas like the family and education, rest on an economic and structural analysis of society that sees a class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. This struggle comprises the attempts by the proletariat to free themselves from the domination of the bourgeoisie

Principles for Duty of Care Free Essays

Principles for implementing duty of care When people interact with each other each has a duty of care to the other. ‘Duty of care: a requirement to exercise a reasonable degree of attention and caution to avoid negligence which would lead to harm to other people. ’ safeguarding contributes to duty of care as children and babies are dependant on adults to care and protect them from harm, we safeguard children by carrying out risk assessments, observing and assessing their development, understanding the ways children may be abused and setting clear expectations for childrens behaviour. We will write a custom essay sample on Principles for Duty of Care or any similar topic only for you Order Now Children have rights, such as those set out in the UN convention on the rights of the child Parents rights are modified by their responsibilities towards the children. The childrens’ act 1989 made clear that it is the welfare of the child that is paramount. Childrens rights are often given priority, overriding those of the parent. Potential conflicts or dilemmas might arise between am imdividuals rights and the duty of care, these can be: Risk Taking Duty of care could conflict with childrens rights to have experiances which further there development and learning its essential children learn how to predict and acoid dangerous situation, if you wrap a child in cotton wool you are taking their duty of care too far. Confidentiality It is essential that sensitive information is kept confidential. However childrens safety and welfare is kept paramount. This conflict becomes more apparent when safeguarding children from abuse. Information must be shared between profecionals in the intrest of the child. Sometimes without consent of the parents. I would discard my duty of care to support childrens rights to gain life skills on how to cope with tricky situations. When dealing with confidentiality your duty of care to protect a child or children from abuse must be balanced with the families rights to have private information treated confidentially. I could get additional support and advice from my manager, supervisor or team leaders. How to cite Principles for Duty of Care, Papers

The Heart of the Matter by Robert Fried free essay sample

A study of this article on education, looking at Frieds plea for passion in teaching and his definition of and requirements for a teacher. This paper reviews Robert Frieds article The Heart of the Matter. It looks at his plea for passion in teaching and his definition of and requirements for a teacher. It explores Frieds claim that students take their cues from the teacher and so reflect back the attitude of the teacher, and the idea of concentration on one area of knowledge. The paper concludes with criticisms on the article. Robert Frieds article The Heart of the Matter might be seen as a reaction to concerns raised in recent years that education is not effective and that teachers are not reaching their students. Fried would agree that many teachers do not, and he suggests that one reason might be that they are not passionate about teaching. We will write a custom essay sample on The Heart of the Matter by Robert Fried or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Fried himself is clearly passionate about teaching and about getting teachers to see the need to be more passionate and so to encourage students to learn, or more specifically to get students to participate in their own learning. Fried makes a good case for the value of passion in teaching, a term he defines and explains, though his argument is not as clearly presented as it could be because he tends to be too indirect in the way he develops that argument. He is also less effective in telling teachers how to be passionate. Indeed, his idea of passionate teaching is in many ways too general to be of help. A teacher who was already passionate would recognize him or herself in what Fried writes, but a teacher who was not already passionate would not find a good guide on how to become passionate in these pages.

Pros and cons of online shopping free essay sample

Evaluating Arguments in Article Analysis Article 1 : Benefits Of Shopping Online Question 1 The issue that is being discussed is about the benefits of online shopping . The article is written on 7th February 2009 by Mansi Citranshi . Today , the world is already at the tip of our fingers . We can do so many things by using internet .Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce where buyers can directly buy goods or services from a seller over the internet service . We can choose a variety of goods from all over the world and evokes the physical analogy of buying products from a bricks-and-mortar store . The author is trying to emphasize the bright side of doing online shopping nowadays . She states that in this recessionary phase , the economy was dilapidated in this global world , millions are affected and masses are short on funds . Masses are exploring the propriety of one stop online shopping web now . We will write a custom essay sample on Pros and cons of online shopping or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Thus , online shopping is the best way to shop nowadays . Question 2 The article’s intended audience is more to teens and adults . This is because the majority of Internet user consists from the range of age at 18-32 . This generation prefer to use the Internet to use the Internet more as a tool for information searches and buying products apart from using the Internet largely for entertainment and for communicating with friends and family . Thus , the author are listing lots of benefits of online shopping so that the generation will change their shopping polarity from shopping in brick-and-mortar shopping complex to online shopping . This also can persuade peoples who think negatively about online shopping to change their perspectives . Question 3 Most evidence that are presented by the author to support her arguments are based on her own experience and observation on today’s shopping trend . She puts all her observation and experiences to share about the online shopping’s pros . Online shopping is something that is beneficial for those who wants to save their time and fuels . It also provide a vivid range of products for everyone from all over the world . After all you will feel  comfortable to shop since you do not have to find any parking spot and be in crowded place. Question 4 The argument is complete. The author give sufficient explanation on what she’s writing about . Online shopping do give us many benefit in our daily life . It helps us to shop within a short time and stay in our comfort zone . However , I think that this author a bit biased . She only stated the benefits of online shopping without saying anything on the bad effect of online shopping . Question 5 As an individual reader , I do agree with most of the points that are stated in the article . Life as a teenager and student needs me to be smart enough to juggle my time so that I can study well and enjoy my life as a youth at the same time . I really love to shop but sometimes insufficient time and money become obstacles for myself . Thus , I find out that online shopping is the best solution for all the shopaholics out there . The author stated that by doing online shopping , we can compare the quality and prices from many website just by using the Internet . This can help me to make a budget and make a right decision to purchase any product which is the cheapest but has the best quality . Besides that , I also can shop right away from anywhere I am as long as there is Internet service and do not have to stuck with the crowd and queue up a long line just to pay for a single product .Do you realize that by online shopping we can actually help to save the environment ? This is becau se when we do online shopping , at the same time we are using less paper to print out pamphlets and reducing the fuel consumption . Question 6 From this article , I learn few new things about online shopping that I did not know before . I just knew that the price of products in online shopping are cheaper than in physical store because the online store have less operating and overhead costs for their products . Plus , we also can save more money by utilizing the coupon codes that we have collected . The more we shop with that website , the more coupon codes can be collected and get more discounts . Interesting , right ? I really enjoy reading this article . It makes me more confident to shop online and turns down all my negative thoughts about online shopping . Article 2 : What’s Wrong With Online Shopping Question 1 The issue that is being discussed is about the disadvantages of online shopping . The article is written on 4th May 2010 by Brad Tuttle . Even though nowadays almost everything can be done by using Internet , we still need to be aware with the bad sides of it . There are so many things that we do not know happening behind the scene . We only know that internet can make our life simpler . The author is telling us the disadvantages of online shopping . Behind the convenience , there are many problems arising because of it . There are price inconsistency , coupons game and lots more . Thus , we need to think twice before make an order from online store . Question 2 The article’s intended audience is for those teenagers and adults who are crazy over online shopping . This is so worrying since some of them have even become addicted into it . They feel like their day will not be complete if they do not scrolling over the shopping website or purchasing something from them . In addition of that , they do not realize that actually their debt or credit card usage is almost at the limit . This can lead to bankruptcy to those shopaholic . Question 3 Most evidence that are presented by the author to support his arguments are based on his own experience and also some facts from interview and experiments done by Paco Underhill , the consumer culture scholar of Why We Buy. Paco Underhill has discussed all sorts of online shopping frustration with the WSJ Digits blog . He is wondering why the prices of the products are inconsistent from the store and the website . This can lead to frustration among the customer when they find out about this . Underhill also had an experiment featured with WSJ Post to investigate whether retail store would match the prices of its online website and does their brick-and-mortar shop will accept returns for products purchased online . This is all about customer service consistency . Question 4 The argument is complete. The author do give sufficient explanation on what he’s writing about . Facts and his own experiences make this article more interesting . I also feels like he is not a biased writer . Even though he is writing on the disadvantages of online shopping , he still agreed that online shopping is much faster rather than going to the physical shop . Besides online shopping also can be done 24 hours a day . However , there are many disadvantages on top of it . Question 5 As an individual reader , I do agree with the points in the article . We should not trust 100% with the online shopping website . Be a smart shopper and do not easily being fooled by the items shown in the website. We have to compare the price shown in the web with the price shown in their brick-and-mortar shop . Some company put a different price for a same item . This is not fair and can create confusion to buyers . Besides that , we also should not be tricked with coupon games . Coupon code that have been collected while we buy online can be used to redeem discounts or free gift . However , sometimes the code do not work for mysterious reasons . It is just a way used by the retailers to attract customers to buy their product by making us feel special with an `exclusive’ offer . Question 6 From this article , I learn few new things about online shopping that I did not realized before . I get to know that online shopping is not truly safe for us , especially the teenagers . We are still young and sometime we do not think twice before doing something . We just follow our hearts . I bet not many of us realize that the retail and online divisions of a company is being handled by different people or groups . Sometimes they are more like competitors rather than a team although they are using the same company name . Besides that , recently in NY Times , there is an issue about `behavioral tracking’ . The retailers are tracking our shopping activity by using web coupons to compile data on our shopping habits. This is to get to know customers better and what is their shopping tendency . Don’t you feel creepy since you are being watched secretly by someone we do not know ? I do not want that to happen to me .

Overview of the Law of the Primate City

Overview of the Law of the Primate City Geographer Mark Jefferson developed the law of the primate cit  to explain the phenomenon of huge cities that capture such a large proportion of a countrys population as well as its economic activity. These primate cities are often, but not always, the capital cities of a country. An excellent example of a primate city is Paris, which truly represents and serves as the focus of France. A countrys leading city is always disproportionately large and exceptionally expressive of national capacity and feeling. The primate city is commonly at least twice as large as the next largest city and more than twice as significant. - Mark Jefferson, 1939​   Characteristics of Primary Cities They dominate the country in influence and are the national focal point.  Their sheer size and activity become a strong pull factor, bringing additional residents to the city and causing the primate city to become even larger and more disproportional to smaller cities in the country. However, not every country has a primate city, as youll see from the list below. Some scholars define a primate city as one that is larger than the combined populations of the second and third ranked cities in a country. This definition does not represent true primacy, however, as the size of the first ranked city is not disproportionate to the second. The law can be applied to smaller regions as well. For example, Californias primate city is Los Angeles, with a metropolitan area population of 16 million, which is more than double the San Francisco metropolitan area of 7 million. Even counties can be examined with regard to the Law of the Primate City. Examples of Countries With Primate Cities Paris (9.6 million) is definitely the focus of France while Marseilles has a population of 1.3 million.Similarly, the United Kingdom has London as its primate city (7 million) while the second largest city, Birmingham, is home to a mere one million people.Mexico City, Mexico (8.6 million) outshines Guadalajara (1.6 million).A huge dichotomy exists between Bangkok (7.5 million) and Thailands second city, Nanthaburi (481,000). Examples of Countries That Lack Primate Cities Indias most populous city is Mumbai (formerly Bombay) with 16 million; second is Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) with more than 13 million.China, Canada, Australia, and Brazil are additional examples of non-primate-city countries.Utilizing the metropolitan area population of urban areas in the United States, we find that the U.S. lacks a true primate city. With the New York City metropolitan area population at approximately 21 million, second-ranked Los Angeles at 16 million, and even third-ranked Chicago at 9 million, America lacks a primate city. Rank-Size Rule In 1949, George Zipf devised his theory of rank-size rule to explain the size cities in a country. He explained that the second and subsequently smaller cities should represent a proportion of the largest city. For example, if the largest city in a country contained one million citizens, Zipf stated that the second city would contain one-half as many as the first, or 500,000. The third would contain one-third or 333,333, the fourth would be home to one-quarter or 250,000, and so on, with the rank of the city representing the denominator in the fraction. While some countries urban hierarchy somewhat fits into Zipfs scheme, later geographers argued that his model should be seen as a probability model and that deviations are to be expected.

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 62

Assignment Example However, when looking closer at these seemingly negative articles all they do is talk about how the government is being a good government and handling the problems responsibly. For instance the Domestic violence article starts with a line about the government being very effective in tackling the problem. The HIV article does similar things later on by pointing out free hospital treatment and the number of clinics that are available. In the US or another country with free speech, this might be quite different as newspapers have a tendency to point out the negative aspects of government even more so than the positive. In China this is clearly not the case and the newspapers are run by the government so they have to only say good things. In this sense they can sometimes serve as propaganda machines. Surprisingly the newspapers are neutral in the article about North Korea, and do not talk about the foreign governments in a bad way like I would expect. I wonder if this is different in Chinese-language versions or if it is the

Sociology class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Sociology class - Essay Example So what does sociology actually imply? For me, based on my own understanding, sociology is concerned with individual action that is unavoidably connected to the action and behavior of other people. Hence, the focus of sociology is quite extensive, encompassing all issues of our social behavior. Nevertheless, the abovementioned description of sociology can be confined. Take for instance an aspect of behavior like a consumer’s decision to buy a product. In general we would view this behavior as an economic act in the sense that it involves a monetary transaction. However the consumer’s choice to buy can also be regarded as being a sociological act, because it definitely has personal significance for the consumer, and it is directed towards the assumed and actual conduct of other actors such as salespeople, other consumers, etc. So what is the importance of sociology? Why do we have to learn about it? Sociology becomes increasingly important nowadays due to the sweeping progress of globalization. This event led to the far-reaching transformation of the globe’s political landscape. The traditional state was displaced by a completely new form of ‘nation state’ founded on transnational institutions, areas, and metropolises. Hence, because of this, sociology becomes indispensable to the understanding of the effects of globalization on the current standing of the nation state. However, some argues that sociology loses its importance because of globalization. I do not think so. Sociology will never lose its importance in present-day civilizations. While long-established societies and cultures were displaced by the new systems, a contemporary sociology embracing them displaced traditional sociology. Certainly, the similarity between traditional sociology and the contemporary one is that as the former emerged in reaction to contained modernization, observed through the occurrences of industrialization and, later on, urbanization, contemporary

Reflection paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 5

Reflection paper - Essay Example I was told that this was the group to join as a college freshman from the UAE because the members were mostly sophomore and upper classmen who could help me learn the ropes and feel my way around the school community as a freshman. I was hesitant to approach the group at first because I felt embarrassed being a new comer to the school. I was not sure about how to introduce myself and ask to become a member of the group. Little did I know that my fears were totally unfounded. I was totally surprised when Ahmad Kabalawi, the president of the Middle Eastern Student Association himself approached me one time to introduce himself and ask if I wanted to attend a group meeting after classes the coming Saturday. Relief swept over me as I accepted the invitation. It turns out that it was not hard to join the group at all and they had been wondering as to why I had not approached them yet after a month of classes opening. I was so happy to join this group because they helped me overcome a lot of personal inhibitions that I had at the time. Being a new student whose first time it was away from home and my parents, I had a tendency to become very homesick. The senior members of the group helped me overcome my homesickness and desire to go home by keeping me busy in between classes. I was never alone because they always had group activities that I could participate in after classes and, most specially, I had a group of friend who understood my culture and belief system. That was very important to me because I needed to be able to keep a sense of home and my individuality while I attended school in the USA. I celebrated the important Middle Eastern and UAE holidays with the members of this group. When we were not busy bonding with each other, I helped them with their cultural information dissemination activities. We would sponsor mixers and hold friendly gatherings both on and off campus with others who were not from the Middle East in

Manifestation Of Sartres Conception Of Engaged Literature English Literature Essay

Manifestation Of Sartres Conception Of Engaged Literature English Literature Essay What is literature is an essay of Jean-Paul Sartre published for the first time in several parts in 1947, in his magazine les temps modernes. The essay is a manifestation of Sartres conception of engaged literature which he defends against its critics. In the essay, Sartre answers three questions: What is writing? Why write? For whom does one write? The first question that Sartre asks is ,What is writing? which is a pure inquiry into finding a clear definition of the act of writing. Sartre will first explain that writing is neither painting nor playing music. In fact, unlike the painter or the musician, who actually care only to present things as they are and give the spectators the absolute freedom to see what they want, the writer can guide his reader. Therefore, he does not present the things as being merely things but as signs. So, when Sartre makes this clear-cut distinction between literature and other forms of art, he can subsequently make another differentiation but within the realm of literature itself, between prose and verse. The latter distinction is very essential in Sartres reflection. I can sum up his distinction by this simple formula: prose uses words whereas verse or poetry serves words. Poetry considers words as a material, just as the painter considers colors or the musician the sounds. Additionally, the prose writer uses a different approach: For him, words are not objects but design objects. He is considered a speaker, and to speak means to act (to do something). In fact, while speaking, we are unveiling facts and while doing so we change them. With his distinction between prose and poetry, Sartre answers the fundamental question of the first chapter. Thus, according to him, to write is to reveal and to do so means to ensure that nobody ignores about the world which is exactly the same situation as with law which everyone should know as they become accountable for their acts. After having elaborated on the definition of writing, Sartre tackles its form. He insists that the style can be added to the essence and must never precede it. It is, he adds, the circumstances and the subject which the writer intends to treat that will push him to seek new means of expression, a new language, and not the other way around. Next, Sartre takes us back to the idea of engagement with which he has begun his book explaining that we cannot ask a painter or a musician to engage himself. Sartre concludes that the writer has to engage himself entirely in his works. One should write when he wants and when he chooses to do so. However, if we write when we decide to, we should now ask ourselves why we write. That is going to be the topic that will be discussed in the next chapter entitled: Why write? For Sartre, literature is a means of communication. Knowing that, we should then find out why one writes. The author begins the chapter by stating the origins of literature, one of the chief motives of artistic creation is certainly the need of feeling that we are essential to the world [1]. To explain this, lets ponder on this example: A man contemplates a landscape. By doing this, he unveils/reveals this scenery and establishes a relationship that would not exist if he were not there. In the meanwhile Man is profoundly conscious of the fact that he is not essential to the uncovered scenery. In fact, he only perceives it without taking part in the process of its creation. Man can also create, but then he will lose his revealing/unveiling function as the produced object reflects rules that he himself created and so will be subjective, for example a writer cannot read his writings from an external angle. The situation here is contrary to the scenerys one in that the creator becomes essential because without him, the object would have no existence, but he is unessential. He has assuredly gained the creation which was not when he was contemplating the landscape, but he has lost the perception. So far, the key to the problem is at the reading stage. A reading which will make a synthesis between the perception and the creation, because any literary work will not shine completely until read, It is the conjoint effort of author and reader which brings upon the scene that concrete and imaginary object which is the work of the mind. There is no art except for and by others [2]. In reading, the object is essential because it imposes its proper structures just like in the landscapes example I mentioned earlier, and the subject is also essential since it is required not only to reveal the object but to guarantee its existence, too. Furthermore, Sartre specifies that the literary object is not conveyed in the language but through it. That is why any literary work deserves to be read in order to make it complete, revealed and ultimately created. Hence the activity of the reader is linked to creation, which makes us reach a unique instance: The object is given as it is to its creator which makes him enjoy what he creates. After explaining the essence and meaning of writing and reading which are interrelated and complete each other, Sartre will proceed with the third question which is about the special relationship existing between the author and his reader. The former is in need of the latter to complete what he started. In fact, for Sartre, every literary work is an appeal and particularly an appeal for freedom of the reader so that the latter would be able to contribute to the making of the literary work. So there will be no work without readers. Here, it is noticeable that Sartres existentialist tendency is dominant as he places the word freedom at the core of the relationship between the author and the reader. What is more, there is an implicit agreement between the two to recognize the freedom of the other, and so the reader presupposes that the writer has realized his writing freely as any human being, otherwise the written work would be uninteresting and purely determinist. Parallelly, the auth or recognizes the freedom of his reader as it is a basic requirement for the completion of his work. For this reason, reading is defined as an act of practicing generosity: Each one devotes himself to the other in thorough freedom and being as much demanding as possible both vis-à  -vis the author or towards oneself. To sum up this process, I can say that the author has recovered the world by giving it to be seen as it is, but as if it had its source in human freedom [3] and not in the mere chance of things. As to the reader, he recovers and interiorizes this external world [or non ego, Sartres term] by transforming it into a compulsory task, The world is my task [4]. In fact, it is this process of interiorization which will cause the reader to feel what Sartre calls an esthetic joy, and it is only when this joy takes place that the work can be considered complete. So each one is a winner and is thus rewarded. But is that all? Of course not! Sartre thinks that this disclosure-creation process should also be an imaginary engagement in the action [5]. Afterwards, he moves on to criticize realism which pretends doing only contemplation, a word which contradicts action because when the author names something [Sartre takes injustice as an example], he creates it as well and invites his reader to do th e same, which makes the two sides responsible for it in the real world. After evoking responsibility, J.P Sartre goes back to his central idea, that of freedom, the writer, a free man addressing free men, has only one subject freedom [6]. This sounds a good answer to the question of the chapter: Why write? According to Sartre, writing is undoubtedly and profoundly linked to freedom; consequently one should take his chance fully by writing about critical areas like politics and democracy. To write is a way for seeking freedom; if one starts this process of writing either willingly or unwillingly, he is definitely engaged. Again Sartre launches the term engaged, so now the question would be to know the public for whom one writes so as to define where and how to engage. That is what Sartre is going to answer is his next chapter entitled, For whom does one write? In this chapter, the author will tackle the fundamental relationship between the writer and his public but this time from a historical perspective. Sartre proposes an answer to the chapters question. As a matter of fact, one writes for the universal reader, and the exigency of the writer is addressed to all men. [7] However, Sartre restrains this assertion by explaining that the writer has always had this ambition to be somehow immortal through overstepping the historic moment he lives into a high level, but Sartre insists that the writer should communicate with his contemporary fellow writers and also with those sharing the same culture with him. So to say, there is a certain degree of complicity and some shared values between them which makes of the latter communication, a very specific one. It is indeed a historic contact both because it is a part of history and also since it is engraved in it. Therefore, the writer has a role to play: a mediator; not only is he a Man, but a write r as well; a position that he chose. Again, Sartre uses his existentialist key-term: freedom, which is at the origin of this choice, but once this choice made, the society will invest on the author by putting barriers and frontiers in front of him by their demands and exigencies. This point brings us to question the importance of the relationship between the writer and his public. To illustrate this point Sartre introduces the example of the African American writer Richard Wright; a writer that had as an aspiration to defend the rights of the oppressed black Americans. There are mainly two points to stress on: the first is that Wright was addressing the cultivated Negroeshis compatriots, but at the same time he was addressing all men. Thus, by putting his name in history, the writer will achieve this much desired infinite leap. The second point is that his public was torn apart, Negroes on one side and whites on the other, which gives words a double meaning, one for the Negroes and one for the whites. From the aforementioned example, Sartre will develop his reflection upon the relationship between the writer and his public. As I have already explained, the writer reveals the society which makes the latter faced with an imperative choice: to assume itself or to change. That is why it is said that the writer has a parasitic function: he seeks to meet those who make him live by attracting their attention to situations they would rather not want to see. This conflict, which is at the very base of the position of the writer, can be explained as follows: on the one hand, we have the conservative forces or the real public of the writer but on the other hand, we have the progressivists or the virtual public. Sartre will subsequently present a brief history of the relations between the two forces: the real and the virtual. He starts from the Middle Ages, an era in which only the clerks knew to read and write and these two activities were considered as techniques just as those of any crafts man. What is more, the public was very restricted to clerks since they write for each other and the goal was not to change things but to maintain the order as it is. Next, Sartre moves to the 17th century which brought up the secularization of the writer [8] but this secularization did not mean a universalization since the public was very restricted, too. Additionally, the public was very active since everybody was reading because they knew to do so, but they were judging following precise values. People at that time had a dominant religious ideology guarded by the clerks, and which was soon doubled by a political ideology which had also its watchdogs. Nonetheless, there was a third category, one composed of writers who accept both these religious and the political facts because they are part of the context without being completely useful to them. They do not naturally question their mission; the latter is already traced contrary to todays writer. They are classical, that is to say they p rogress in a stable world where the quest is not to discover but to construct what is already known. The society or rather the elite demand that the writer reflects not what the society is but what the society thinks it is; art should be moralizing. Again, Sartre asserts that we can detect a liberating power within a given work since the latter has an effect, which is to free the human being from his passions. Sartre will afterwards tackle the 18th century turning of history in which the writer will refuse ideologies of the ruling classes, and then he will talk about the 19th centurys status of literature which is characterized by the ideology of destruction which will end up by the advent of surrealism. So literature is at a hard stage of alienation in which it is merely a means or a tool and not an aim in itself. Sartre sums up the present situation of the writer in three points: First, he is disgusted of the sign as he prefers disorder to composition and thus poetry to prose. Second, he considers literature a sample expression like all other expressions existing in life and thus he is not ready to sacrifice his life for literature. Third, the writer is going through a crisis of moral conscience because he can no longer define his role. So, Sartre proposes for the writer to act in order to survive and ultimately to create a state of equilibrium. Finally, Sartre draws the portrait of an i deal society without classes and in which the virtual public is in a rich relationship with the real public. This way the writer could speak to all his contemporaries so as to express their joys and angers. Literature would contain the whole human condition and would be anthropologist. It would be a pure utopia which would enable literature to be fulfilled in all its purity. This utopia can be very useful as an example, but it has its limits since it does not actually represent what was happening in Sartres time. To conclude his book, Sartre will be more concrete as he states the situation of the writer in his time (that is in 1947) and suggests some pieces of advice to his contemporary writers. Sartres contribution to literary theory is very important and what makes it so meaningful is the fact that Sartre is both a critic and a writer. His ideas about literature are very influenced by his existentialist-Marxist view of the world. Generally speaking, existentialism tries to make meaning in a chaotic and irrational world and Sartre argues that it is Man who makes himself, and as a major representative of existentialism, Sartre seeks to analyze literary works while emphasizing on the struggle to define meaning and identity in the face of alienation and isolation. Thus, in his book, Sartre sees literature as the product of the relation between the author and the society he lives in. As far as form is concerned, he prefers prose to verse and considers that the aim of prose is humanist or the sublime human existence and this idea goes hand in hand with his famous motto Existentialism is humanism. Also, for him, language is the strongest tool of communication and literature is the culminating stage of this communication. This view leads Sartre to embrace the idea of engagement of literature since literature is essentially a social product though written by individuals. Here, I personally feel attracted by this idea of commitment since a writer or an artist in general has a vital responsibility over his society, and even though sometimes readers may read works with no didactic or moral intention, it is undeniable that art is extremely purposeful. The evidence that shows that art has an influence on society is that it presents new values not only h elping to develop society, but shaping its behavior as well, for example we can draw many lessons from a plays characters that do not stop at purifying us but influences us by its content and result [Aid 1988] [9]. Moreover, I share this idea of Sartre raised mainly against the 19th century movement of art for arts sake and which views that the intrinsic value of art, and the only true art, is divorced from any didactic, moral or utilitarian function [10] and also against the bourgeois writer, who was more devoted to his craft than to his audience. Furthermore, considering the existentialist idea of Man in the world and since the writer is a Man, his real existence is a literary identity for him. That is to say, a writer defines himself by engaging willingly and consciously in intentional action. I think that Sartre is like Terry Eagleton [1983] in seeking a definition of literature. However, the latter does not consider literature as being merely imaginative, but as using language specifically, that is to say, as Jakobson believes: literature is a type of writing which exerts an organized violence on the ordinary discourse and condenses the ordinary language as the composition, sounds and rhythm of the words overtakes its lexical meaning. Thus, the language of literature aims at attracting attention to it. In addition, for the Russian Formalists, cited by Terry Eagleton in his introduction to literary theory [1983]: the literary work is neither a vessel for transporting ideas nor a reflection of the social reality but a physical truth since it is compounded of words and not subjects or emotions, Literary language is a set of deviations from a norm à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a special kind of language, in contrast to the ordinary language we commonly use. [Eagleton 1983] [11] Here, it would be useful to notice that the formalists overlook to analyze the literary content and focus only on analyzing the form, and instead of considering the form as an expression of the content, they see it as a mere motive for it, and even though some formalists never deny the existing relationship between literature and society, they refute the idea that this relationship might be of some interest to the critic. Besides, If Sartre focuses on two main principles: engagement and freedom, Eagleton stresses on one major principle which is that literature by nature is a non-pragmatic discourse contrary to Sartres convictions, that is to say that literature is a language that indicates itself only. This view of Eagleton resembles the views of the Russian formalists about literature. As to the idea of alienation, Eagleton thinks that there is no writing which cannot be read as being alienated since readers can use their ability of interpretation, because ambiguity and confusion are present even in most logical discourses, so every text is open to interpretation. I can add to Eagletons contribution that life is full of instances of confusion, for example in cinema; most films plots are based upon the ambiguities and confusions linked to everyday language. This idea is also advanced by Wolfgang Iser (1978) ,in which he says that readers are free to interpret a text the way they want but they have to construct it in such a way that renders it internally consistent. An open work must become coherent, and the vagueness must be normalized. [12] To conclude, I would say that Sartres book was a manifestation of engaged literature in which he defines firmly the characters of the contemporary literature. However, his lucid reflections have raised many critiques from different scholars in different periods of time, but it still remains a good reference for anyone who seeks to answer questions related to the nature and function of literature. I should say that I share most of Sartres ideas especially those related to the nature and role of art and the relationship between the author and his reader. Literature has always had a function throughout history from Plato to our recent days either morally, educationally or socially, and any writer, anywhere, should know his responsibility over humanity and thus write purposefully. However, one can write for reasons which are not necessarily didactic, such as for delight and amusement of the reader. In any case, I think that a writer should combine both meaningful and amusing approaches i n his literary work, therefore literature can teach and delight [Sidney 1595] [13]

The Fencing Problem - Mathematics :: Math Coursework Mathematics

The Fencing Problem Introduction ============ I have been given 1000 meters of fencing and my aim is to find out the maximum area inside. ====================================================================== Prediction ---------- I would predict that the more sides the shape has, then possibly the bigger the area it will have, although I have nothing to base this on, it will be what I am about to investigate. Shapes: I am going to start with the rectangle, I think this is a good starting block because I am able to vary the widths and lengths to see which has the bigger area. If I discover that the rectangles with equal sides i.e. square bring me the best result, then I will try to direct my investigation into furthering that particular theory. Rectangles ---------- [IMAGE] Area = 40 000 m2 ================ [IMAGE] Area = 60 000 m2 [IMAGE] Area = 62 500 m2 It appears that the square shape has a bigger area, I would possibly say that this is because the square has two bigger numbers, which are multiplied together to give a greater number than when a big number is multiplied with a smaller number. However, I cannot take this for granted and I think using one more shape will be useful in order to back up my theory. [IMAGE] Area = 52 500m This proves my theory regarding squares and I shall now put my results into a graph to show what I have found. Length (m) Width (m) Area (m) 400 100 40 000 300 200 60 000 250 250 62 500 150 350 52 500 I will now further my investigation by looking at shapes of a different nature: [IMAGE] Regular Pentagon ---------------- The regular pentagon has 5 sides, and as we get 1000m of fencing, this means each side will be 200m (1000Â ¸5=200).

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Constitution for a few essays In Constitution for a Few Michael Parenti expressed his views about the constitution. Parenti thought that the constitution was made in favor of the Founding Fathers and the rich. He believed that the constitution made the rich richer and the poor poorer. Without the constitution, America would be in complete disorder. The Founding Fathers did not write the constitution for just the rich or just the poor, they wrote it for the benefit of all people within the nation. Nowhere in the constitution does it state that you have to be wealthy to run for an office, which is contradictory to the beliefs of Parenti. He believed that only the wealthy white males could run for a position in the government and that a man from New Jersey would have to be worth at least 1000 pounds and without debt. The constitution states that if you have money you would have more opportunities. This was meant to protect the nation from a democratic government. The Founding Fathers formed a government with three branches Executive, Judicial, and Legislative. Each one is neither less or more powerful than the other they were designed to be equally balanced in power. This allows the people to vote for their representatives in the government. A representative government or a Republic Government is thought to be best for the people. If the constitution is only in favor of the wealthy people in the nation then how could it have lasted for so long? The constitution was made so that it could be changed if found to be not in the best interest of the public. There have been no changes made to the constitution that have to do with the social class of any person or persons. This is why the constitution has lasted so long, and why it will continue to go on. The Founding Fathers did all this to be sure that everyone would benefit form the Constitution. They thought of how it would affect the public and made it so that it could be changed i...

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3 Common Errors When Using Numbers 3 Common Errors When Using Numbers 3 Common Errors When Using Numbers By Mark Nichol References to numbers, spelled out or in numeral form, often include erroneous use of hyphens or dashes, as shown in the following examples. Errors are explained and corrected in the discussion and revision that follows each sentence. 1. The US men’s basketball team won seven Olympic gold medals between 1936–68. A dash (not a hyphen) that connects two numbers to represent a range functions as a replacement for from and to, so do not include from before a number range separated by a dash. Between, likewise, should not be paired with a number range, but in this case, retain the word, pairing it with and in place of the dash: â€Å"The US men’s basketball team won seven Olympic gold medals between 1936 and 1968.† (â€Å"The US men’s basketball team won seven Olympic gold medals 1936–68† is not syntactically valid.) 2. Fourteen and fifteen-year-old kids are easily impressionable. When two hyphenated phrasal adjectives are identical except for the first term, the rest of the first phrasal adjective after that term can be elided, with the implication that the balance of the second phrasal adjective serves both of the initial words. However, to signal this sharing, retain the hyphen after the first element: â€Å"Fourteen- and fifteen-year-old kids are easily impressionable.† (Otherwise, the implication is that fourteen kids are easily impressionable, and so are fifteen-year-old kids.) 3. The rockslide occurred when a massive slab measuring fifty-by-eighty-by-fifteen feet broke off from a sheer cliff and went flying down the mountain. When a phrase consisting of two or more numbers separated by by describes the surface area or volume of an object, omit hyphens unless the entire phrase modifies a noun: â€Å"The rockslide occurred when a massive slab measuring fifty by eighty by fifteen feet broke off from a sheer cliff and went flying down the mountain.† (Compare â€Å"The fifty-by-eighty-by-fifteen-foot slab broke off from a sheer cliff and went flying down the mountain.†) The same rule applies when numerals represent the numbers. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Redundant Phrases to AvoidDriver License vs. Driver’s LicenseWhat Is a Doctor?

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Should people ban testing on animals based upon people unethical research of animal - Essay Example Since decades, animals are used for the purpose of testing in order to accomplish the objectives of experiments. Scientifically, animal testing is termed to be beneficial for many inventions, but it is also not without certain ethical issues related with animal rights. The practice of animal testing has its long story, which can be found rooted since when the ancient Greek people used animal for their experiments and in many rituals to gain beauty and good health. While then the human society had limited concern about the living rights of animals, modern day philosophers and activists have been into debates as to whether animal testing should be banned with due consideration to its positive contributions towards the development of the society (PRISM, â€Å"The Connection between Animal Testing, the Environment, and Human Health†). Emphasizing this context, the objective of the paper is to argue regarding the negatives and positives associated with animal testing in order to take a stand in opposition of banning animal testing. Hence, the thesis of the paper will aim to support animal testing for innovation and for the development of medical research emphasizing its positive effects and critically assessing the negatives associated with the same. Arguments in contradiction to animal testing have long been encouraged by activists and philosophists in the society. However, it cannot be ignored that there are some fields where the experiments upon animal are mandatory in nature for the overall enhancement of the society and also for new inventions. Illustratively, the biomedical field is such an example wherein animal testing is mandatory for the research to be a success. It is evident, that scientists in the present day, with the help of advance technology, are inventing new options in the area of medical research to support the human life system. For instance, researchers, through animal

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The way in which the theme of prejudice is presented Essay Example for Free

The way in which the theme of prejudice is presented Essay From your reading of the novel so far, (up to and including chapter four), comment on the way in which the theme of prejudice is presented. The subject of prejudice is one of the major themes throughout the novel Of Mice and Men. There are three main characters that suffer prejudice from others, although this isnt always intentional. Crooks, Candy and Curleys wife are all examples of characters that are discriminated against, whether because of race, sex, age or appearance. Lennie receives some prejudice, however not nearly as much as the others. Candy is the oldest of all the ranch workers, and has lost his hand (presumably in a working accident), so therefore is resigned to be the swamper, as he cant do anything more. Because of this, he is isolated from the other workers in the bunkhouse due to his age and disability, and has become incredibly lonely. Candy is one of the three pairings in the novel, a relationship that is quickly destroyed. At the start of the novel, he is not as lonely as his old sheepdog provides company for him so his seclusion does not affect him hugely. However, in chapter 3, the other members of the group pressure him into allowing Carlson to shoot his dog, on the basis that he Dont know nothing that stinks so bad as an old dog. Although Candy loves his dog and doesnt want it dead, he eventually gives up and allows Carlson to take away his dog and shoot it. This shows how desperate he is for the other workers to like him more: that he would allow his only real friend on the ranch to be killed just to please the others in the bunkhouse. This also shows the amount of prejudice Candy suffers: it was inevitable that his dog was going to be killed, and if it had come to it he probably would have had no say in the matter. The event is foreshadowing of the fact that Candy is also old, and he too will die sooner than any of the other men. Further prejudice is seen as Slim offers him another dog from his new litter of puppies. The other ranch workers cannot see his misery, and treat him more like an animal by simply offering to replace what has been lost. Another of the victims of prejudice is Curleys wife, who is never given a name during the novel, to show that she has become one of Curleys possessions in the eyes of the workers, and, like all women, could never be treated as an equal. She is treated very harshly, suffering much verbal violence, for example being referred to as a bitch, tramp, poison, jailbait and a looloo. Most of these names are said in a cruel way, however some are merely how the workers refer to all women in general. Because of the neglect that she is given by everyone on the ranch, she dresses flamboyantly in order to gain some of the attention that she craves. She is said to have full, rouged lips and wide-spaced eyes, heavily made up. She wears a lot of red, which is a symbol of danger and also is a vibrant colour that may get her noticed. Also, it is very similar to a description of Mae West a film star at the time. When Curleys wife first meets George and Lennie she put her hands behind her back and leaned against the door frame so that her body was thrown forward. This is done only so that people will notice her for her good looks and therefore (she hopes) will pay her some attention. Instead they are all rude to her behind her back as their only real experience with women is at the local brothel, where women are treated more as objects, and so because of this, the workers associate her with prostitution and treat her with no respect. Like most women, she is considered to have hidden dangers; one of the ranchers describes how Andys in San Quentin now on account of a tart. Lennie, although he receives a small amount of prejudice, still holds some respect, as the other workers fear his strength, especially after he crushes Curleys hand. However, behind his back, references are often made about the fact that George and him travel together, implying that he wouldnt be able to do anything on his own and George himself says many times how childlike and dependant he is. A character that receives a large amount of discrimination is Crooks, simply because he is black. Much of this is not intentional, names such as nigger are common language to use amount the ranch workers, and they use it without considering the affect it has on Crooks feelings. He is treated terribly in the novel and is forced to live in a small shed with the animals. He has become a proud, aloof man and is rude to everyone as they are rude to him. He is clearly very lonely, and for good reason- the only time that he is allowed into the bunkhouse with the others is at Christmas so that they can beat him up, and get pleasure out of watching him behave like an animal. The only people in the book who dont instantly discriminate him because he is a nigger are Candy and Lennie, Lennie only because he doesnt know how. Crooks is still bitter and rude to them though, because he is afraid of being friendly to people because he no longer trusts anyone to return the friendliness. When Lennie comes into Crooks makeshift home, Crooks is instantly very rude to him. However, when Candy also wants to talk to him, Crooks found it hard to conceal his pleasure with anger, showing that Crooks actually enjoyed the company. He starts to come out of his shell and even asks to be part of Lennies dream, but then Curleys wife enters and is met with nothing but rude comments. This causes her to become defensive and she is very scornful to Crooks, causing him to retire into the terrible protective dignity of the negro. He is put in his place, and refuses to be part of the dream, because, as he says, I wouldn want to go no place like that.

Leadership in washing machines market

Leadership in washing machines market To maintain the leadership in the washing machines market, whirlpool Maroc should sustain some effort and add some factors that will add some value to the product and the brand image of the company such as: Whirlpool Maroc must maintain the good relationship with the customer and the good after sell service, maintaining the good quality of the product and the good design of the product, Keeping the same price but trying to decrease it by using the Optional Feature Pricing, Targeting the lower class in the society by a new cheap product (load II. Introduction: In this report I am going to show you the weaknesses that may have whirlpool Maroc on it Marketing Strategy based on some analysis of the whirlpool Maroc website and research I did on the field (MARJAN supermarket) by using some marketing tools such as PESTEL analysis, SWOT analysis, Competitive situation and Marketing Mix. This report will also demonstrate how this company is running it marketing strategy on the Moroccan home appliance market. And finally I will give some recommendation which will be useful for the company to increase there market share and customers satisfaction. III. Current situation: Strategic Analyses 1. Whirlpool Slogan SENSING THE DIFFERENCE 2. Mission, Vision statement and Values Taking in consideration what is mentioned on (marketing strategy MKT306, 2008) and that whirlpool Maroc is subsidiary (Appendix) of Whirlpool Corporation they share the same mission, vision and values: Mission is a measurable goal, every company needs to have to know where it is going, and its current situation along the process. A business can have many different missions under the format of the vision of the business. So, for Whirlpool Corporation the mission is creating with passion a Loyal Customers for life by providing to that customer with a good service quality and reliable product. That customer can be everyone and him the company work to create value. Vision statement is about the future situation that a business wishes to attain; the visions intention is to control, to guide, and to encourage the business as a whole to achieve the desirable state of the business. Whirlpool Corporation considers that every home in every country is the company domain and proud to provide the customer with innovative solution that fit their needs. Also to have good Performance against competitors in the future .and attract global investors with superior returns. Values define the business beliefs, the rules that control the business to the peers, the staff and importantly to the customers. The employees of Whirlpool Corporation are ordered to behave and run the business everywhere in the world under the five values of whirlpool which are: Respect: that means that the relation made in the internal and external environment of the company is based on respect. Integrity: means that the company has no right to do wrong things .the image of the company must be clean. Diversity and Inclusion: the company maintains diversity of ideas and people inside the company and allows everyone to contribute on the creation of values. Teamwork: no right to be selfish, inside the company we are one. Spirit of Winning: encourage of spirit of winning inside every member of the company to reach goals and make extraordinary result. 3. Competitive edge: With revenues more than 550 million MAD (50 Mà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬) in 2008 Whirlpool is the leader of the home appliance market in morocco representing 31% of market share, that is 8% more than the nearest competitor which is FAGOR with 23% (420 M MAD) of market share and 100 years of experience in the appliance sector. Also whirlpool is the first and only home Appliance Company which creates an e-commerce website (whirlpool.ma) to sell their product in morocco. The Moroccan customer is able to know the real price and buying on-line the specific product he like ,and whirlpool provide to the Moroccan customers accessories Unlike other competitors(FAGOR,LG). Whirlpool is present in 23 cities with 122 retailers (32 in Casablanca) no other competitor are providing in their websites about there retailers like whirlpool do. All products of WHIRLPOOL Morocco are guaranteed for 1 year, from the date of purchase. But LG products are guaranteed for 10 years (MARJAN supermarket). Whirlpool is sensitive to their customers needs and requests by building a Service Center for the customers where they can Complaint about problems they have with the product .also they can Complaint by sending e-mails or by phone call. The price of whirlpool washing machine start from 3949 MAD (AWE 6316, 5kg) to 11499 MAD (MAXY 13S, 13kg),so the customers of whirlpool are middle class society and upper class society. Whirlpool Maroc is the only company that provide the customer with wash machine that have Aquasteam system and Microban treatment. Whirlpool provides the wash machine market with 16 models of wash machines. According to Mourad Alem  ,DG of whirlpool Maroc (whirlpool.ma,2011).the mean objective of whirlpool Maroc is to sustain a 10% progression of sells every year by renew each year between 35 and 40% of it offers. 4. SWOT Analysis According to (marketingteacher.com, 2011) The SWOT analysis is a technique that is used to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the business and determine the opportunities and threats that the business might face. Here under, the SWOT analysis of whirlpool Maroc I got based on analyzing information token from the whirlpool morocco website and research made in MARJAN California supermarket: Strengths: -The long history of the company (100 years). This can be used to show that the company is specialized on home appliance and know how to make a good product. Good relationships between the staff. Customers care. Good services. Qualified staff. -Good prices for product and Accessories. -Beautiful design. -Innovative technology 6TH SENSE. Weaknesses: -Weak marketing strategy in morocco. Brand awareness in Morocco: only one spot TV for the wash machine and doesnt consider the culture and the society customs and behavior because this spot TV is made in France and they just copy and past it on the national TV publicity, Also no publicity in newspaper and magazines. -No sponsoring for other sport, event or famous Moroccan people and only sponsoring tennis and BAHIA MOUHTASSINE. Opportunities: Weak competition with local companies (no existence of national companies which made home appliances.) Free trade agreement between THE UNITED STATES and morocco . Moroccan people start using internet for shopping. The equipment rate of washing machines is about 45% according to Mourad Alem, DG of whirlpool Maroc (whirlpool.ma, 2011). Threats: High competition with big companies like: SAMSUNG, FAGOR, LG, BRANDT, ROYAL, ELECTROLUX. Random shocks, (political, social or natural events) such as: Boycotting the brand because it is a USA product. Changes in government policy, (the government may use a contraction monetary policy to prevent inflation which will effect the business). -The purchasing power of the customer. 5. Marketing strategy, Aims and Objectives As defined on the Philip Kotler and Kevin l. Keller book (Marketing Management 12 ed., 2006), the marketing strategy, aims and objectives is what unique position will the company be able to achieve. A marketing strategy is about the designed marketing plan to achieve a certain marketing objectives; there might be some objectives like becoming the market leader. The strategic plan here is a planning with details includes a marketing research, and next evaluating a marketing mix to become the leader. Every company needs to have marketing objectives to work on and achieve the strategy. In a marketing strategy, time is everything as long as the company takes the advantage to plan, to distribute, and to develop. (part1, chapter2, Developing Marketing Strategies and Plans.p35) In morocco whirlpool Maroc based its main advertising program on sponsoring the Moroccan tennis player BAHIA MOHTASSIN. This is publicity for the 10th anniversary of whirlpool Maroc in Morocco in association with Bahia Mouhtassine N °1 Moroccan womens tennis player. The other thing, the whirlpool Maroc marketing strategy is based also by providing product such as a washing machine which is designed as an environmental friendly product in accordance to customer expectations. This product line is named Green Generation which is specified by 4 characteristics: Reduce your consumption of energy 10% less electricity consumption compared to the energy label class A. 6TH SENSE technology is an innovation made by whirlpool engineers. The Power of Steam. The objective is to gain competitive advantage and sustain their leadership especially over the wash machine market and other component of home appliance market in general. IV. Recommendations 1. Segmentation Targeting Whirlpool Maroc (whirlpool.ma, 2011) is using a demographic segmentation such as: social class segment, income segment, also taking in consideration geographic segmentation. The Moroccan consumers have evolved in the last few years; they are expressing the need of washing their cloth with less energy and efficiently with good price and most of all eco-friendly. They also want customized washing machines such as washing machines that have different colours and designs. The target market that the company is targeting is composed of people who want to participate in the process that the world is adopting to protect the environment. Indeed whirlpool Maroc is segmenting a middle class and upper class with medium income and plus .targeting them with 16 model of washing machines with prices starting from 3949 MAD (AWE 6316, 5kg) to 11499 MAD (MAXY 13S, 13kg) and including characteristics made for the benefit of the consumer: 6th sense and Aquasteam technology, low consumption of energy and well designed. Also with a large number of stores (122) located in different locations (23 cities) allow Store managers to stock products that suits the local community (MARJAN, ACIMAà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦etc) covering the entire territory of Morocco kingdom. In my opinion whirlpool Maroc should target the lower class in the society with economic washing machines. For example a washing machine with low load (5 kg and less) with cheap price under 2000 MAD (200à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬). 2. The marketing mix 2.1 Product: Whirlpool Maroc (whirlpool.ma) is offering 16 washing machines with modern design, 2 color whit and gray, load starting from 5kg to 13kg, and integrating 5 characteristic which are the main characteristics of the Green Generation product line: Reduce the consumption of energy by 40% (compared to a unit of energy class A), optimizing the chemical action and enhancing the mechanical action of the cycle, for a perfect washing result. Whirlpool washing machines are making an effort for the environment, 10% less electricity consumption compared to the energy label class A. With this chemical treatment, whirlpool washing machine stays cleaner, fresher and more hygienic for longer. with Microban (a leader in antibacterial solutions), Whirlpool has developed a special treatment that helps reduce bacterial growth, odors and mould in the detergent drawer, a particularly sensitive part of the washing machine . The 6th sense ensures perfect wash results in continuously optimizing the energy consumed the amount of water and washing time. 6TH SENSE technology recognizes the size of the load by special sensors, and automatically adjusts resources, savings up to 50% on energy, water and time. The load is continuously monitored throughout the wash cycle and ensuring optimal washing performance. Uses the natural power of steam to gently eliminate the toughest stains and sanitize the clothes, even at low temperatures. The steam injected into the drum to maintain a constant temperature for longer, thus increasing the efficiency of washing. The steam relaxes the smooth fibers and allows the detergent to penetrate more deeply into your clothes to remove the toughest stains. As recommendation I believe that whirlpool will have more market share if it produces washing machines that can be transportable, with a low load under 5kg to take it to a camping for example. Also by providing washing machines with more colors, so the customer can fit it with his interior home design and why not try to give the customer more than 1 year of warranty. Finally whirlpool should explore the market of heavy washing machines with load more than 13kg like the company LG (www.lg.com/ma, 2011) did with the LG F12588FD with 15kg of load. 2.2 Price: Like The vast majority of companies, whirlpool Maroc (whirlpool.ma, 2011) is developing Product line and use price steps. Indeed whirlpool Maroc washing machines have the price (out promotion) starting from 3949 MAD (AWE 6316, 5kg) to 11499 MAD (MAXY 13S, 13kg). As recommendation I think that whirlpool Maroc will increase it profit by following the Optional Feature Pricing(Neil H. Borden,1965), for example: decreasing the price of the washing machine but once the customer like the product, the sales assistance convince him of spending more money to get more Features such as customising the wash machine to fit the kitchen wall color or to buy a chemical treatment to clean the washing machine from outside and reducing the rate of that the washing machine get rusty . Finally I think that whirlpool Maroc will decries the prices if it build it factories in morocco and benefit from the Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Legal and Environmental factor of the country.(see appendix) 2.3Place: Whirlpool is present in 23 cities with 122 retailers such as supermarkets (MARJAN, ACIMA) and home appliances stores (BIOUGNASH, LE COMPTOIR, CRAMER) and that is covering the entire territory of morocco. However, I think that whirlpool Maroc should take in consideration the traditional markets called souk such as: derb ghalef, souk anamoudaji. 2.4Promotion: Whirlpool Maroc (whirlpool.ma, 2011) is promoting with only one spot TV a year and 5 companions presses this last 10 years about washing machine .whirlpool Maroc also launched a website (whirlpool.ma), sponsoring the woman tennis player BAHIA MOUHTASSINE, made Partnership with Helga Heidrich SOS animals foundation and HABITAT FOR HUMANITY association, and occasionally decries price of it product in some event such as week of price cut in supermarkets and home appliances stores. Observing the marketing communication of whirlpool Maroc, I think that whirlpool Maroc will have more impact and will made powerful brand awareness in the Moroccan society if whirlpool made more than 1 spot TV a year and more companion press taking in consideration on these advertising the characteristics of the Moroccan culture and society , also sponsoring other sport and Athletes such as soccer, basket ball, golf, and be more social by creating partnership with orphans association such as BAYTY and MOHAMED V foundation. In addition 2.5People: According too Whirlpool Maroc (whirlpool.ma, 2011) their employees must be creative, take risks and be modest with the customer. They are women and men of different nationalities, cultures, backgrounds and sensibilities and they bring to Whirlpool different views and work together around a common goal. Whirlpool Maroc future relies on innovative thinking and intelligent action. Whirlpool Maroc offers them the opportunity to work in multicultural teams and diverse including teamwork and mutual respect are an integral part of entrepreneurship. All that characteristics to have qualified stuff that can add value for the company and most of all satisfy the customer need with a good after sell service. In my opinion whirlpool has good relationship with the customer but it will be better if they launched a website in Arabic because according too (HCP.ma, 2011) only a minority in morocco who can speak and read French even if its our second language. 2.6Process: When I have visited MARJAN supermarket, I found that the salesman was kind and qualified also that Home Delivery was for free .but to obtain the warranty you should register your washing machine by your self in the website of whirlpool Maroc. So I suggest that it will be more efficient if the consumer can register the product in the same place not to go home and register it. 2.7Physical evidence: I liked the idea that you can test the machine before take it home. What I suggest for whirlpool Maroc is to protect the body of the washing machines with Plastic Film, because people keep hitting it with their supermarket carts. Its a picture I took in MARJAN supermarket .in the right: whirlpool MAXY 13S (13kg). In the left: LG F12588FD (15kg). V. Conclusion In conclusion I think that whirlpool Maroc has good position among it competitors ,but I think also that whirlpool Maroc has to make some effort to sustain this leadership position by introducing some factors to it marketing strategy which will add some value to the company product and have more brand awareness in the future.

The Columbian Exchange: Between the Old World and New World Essay

The Columbian Exchange is a global exchange of goods and ideas between the Old World (Europe, Asia and Africa) and the New World (America). When Columbus first discovered America, Spain wanted to set up colonies. Columbus found some people that he named â€Å"Indians.† They colonies started to trade with each other, and by doing do, they started the Columbian Exchange. Many countries were involved in this trade, including China, Africa and Italy. This exchange of new ideas, traditions, food, religion and diet changed cultures everywhere. The Native Americans gave and received many items. One of the most important items that the Indians received was horses. Before horses, Indians had no way of carrying heavy loads from place to place. When the Europeans arrived in America, they gave them th...

International Diversification and the Market Value of New Product

Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of International Management International diversi? cation and the market value of new product introduction Chi-Feng Wang a,1, Li-Yu Chen b,? , Shao-Chi Chang c,2 a b c Department of Business Administration, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Taiwan Department of Management, Fo Guang University, Taiwan Institute of International Business, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan article info Article history: Received 11 January 2011Received in revised form 31 March 2011 Accepted 31 March 2011 Available online 2 May 2011 Keywords: International diversi? cation New product introduction Technological capability Marketing capability Event study abstract Although previous studies on international diversification are plentiful, they mainly focus on the effect of international diversification on overall firm performance, and the results are mixed. This study extends this line of research and explores the impact of international diversification on new product performance.Specifically, we ask if international diversification explains the stock market reactions to new product introduction (NPI) announcements. We find an inverted-U-shaped relationship between international diversification and the announcement returns of NPIs, revealing that the market value of NPIs initially improves and then declines with increasing international diversification. The results also show that intangible assets, such as technological and marketing capabilities, positively moderate the relationship between international diversification and the market value of NPIs.Our study not only highlights the importance of considering both sides of international diversification in affecting investors' assessments of corporate new product strategies, but also shows the possibility of internal capabilities in changing the fixed relationship between international diversification and the market value of new products.  © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction According to the theory of foreign direct investment (FDI) (Caves, 1996; Dunning, 1988; Hymer, 1976) and portfolio theory (Jacquillat and Solnik, 1978; Lessard, 1973, 1976; Solnik, 1974), international diversi? ation will lead to higher ? rm value. However, existing studies examining the impact of international diversi? cation on ? rm performance have yielded inconclusive results. The results on the relationship between international diversi? cation and ? rm performance has been found to be positive (Delios and Beamish, 1999; Grant, 1987; Rugman et al. , 2008), negative (Collins, 1990; Zaheer and Mosakowski, 1997), U-shaped (Capar and Kotabe, 2003; Gaur and Kumar, 2009; Lu and Beamish, 2001), inverted-U-shaped (Brock et al. , 2006; Garbe and Richter, 2009; Gomes and Ramaswamy, 1999; Hitt et al. 1997) and horizontal-S-shaped (Contractor et al. , 2003; Lu and Beamish, 2004; Ruigrok et al. , 2007). To better understand the in? uence of international diversi? cation, we extend this line of research by studying the impact of international diversi? cation on new product performance. Speci? cally, we test if international diversi? cation explains the stock ? Corresponding author at: Present address: Department of Management, Fo Guang University, No. 160, Linwei Rd. , Jiaosi, Yilan County 26247, Taiwan. Tel. : + 886 3 9871000 23816. E-mail addresses: [email  protected] net. tw (C. -F. Wang), [email  protected] fgu. edu. w (L. -Y. Chen), [email  protected] ncku. edu. tw (S. -C. Chang). 1 Present address: Department of Business Administration, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, No. 123, University Road, Section 3, Douliou, Yunlin 64002, Taiwan. Tel. : + 886 5 5342601Ãâ€"5245. 2 Present address: Institute of International Business, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Road, 701, Tainan, Taiwan. Tel. : + 886 6 2757575Ãâ€"53506. 1075-4253/ $ – see front matter  © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. intman. 2011. 03. 002 334 C. -F. Wang et al. / Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 arket responses to new product introduction (NPI) announcements. NPIs are an important dimension of innovation output. 3 Firms with the ability to introduce new products are signaled as those with the opportunity for differentiation and future earnings (Chaney et al. , 1991; Kleinschmidt and Cooper, 1991; Subramaniam and Venkatraman, 2001). In order to improve the performance of NPIs, many ? rms are engaged in international diversi? cation activities (Kogut and Zander, 1993; Peng and Wang, 2000). Previous studies have documented that international diversi? cation comes with both bene? s and costs (Contractor et al. , 2003; Lu and Beamish, 2004; Ruigrok et al. , 2007). We suggest that these bene? ts and costs might create both opportunities and challenges for ? rms to develop new products, and hence in? uence investors' assessment of the new products introduced by ? rms. International diversi? cation may have positive effects on NPIs. For example, it allows ? rms to reach outside their domestic boundaries, providing them with more opportunities to gain new ideas in terms of the types of new products that can be developed (Hitt et al. , 1997). Internationally diversi? ed ? ms also have better access to the resources resident in foreign countries that may be necessary for producing these new products (Craig and Douglas, 2000; Peng and Wang, 2000). Furthermore, international diversi? cation creates the bene? t of economies of scale by ef? ciently leveraging the initial investments on new products over a broader market base (Subramaniam and Venkatraman, 2001). In spite of the bene? cial effects of international diversi? cation, we suggest that international diversi? cation may also entail disadvantages when it comes to introducing new products. For instance, cross-nationa l distances increase the dif? ulty for internationally diversi? ed ? rms to transfer technological knowledge between countries. Differential environmental settings among countries might also constrain the ? rm's ability to absorb and apply resources towards new product development. In such cases, new products are expected to be less worthwhile for introducing ? rms with international diversi? cation activities. In addition to investigating the direct impact of international diversi? cation on the stock market reactions to NPI announcements, we postulate that investors' assessments of the value of new products may depend on a ? m's internal capabilities. Extending previous research documenting the importance of technological and marketing capabilities in determining new product success (e. g. , Cooper and Kleinschmidt, 1987; Yeoh and Roth, 1999), we argue that both marketing and technological capabilities assist in enhancing the bene? ts of international diversi? cation while simulta neously restricting its drawbacks with regard to the introduction of new products. We test our hypotheses by measuring the stock market responses to NPI announcements using the event-study methodology framework.The events of NPI announcements are collected for the period 1997–2005. Under the assumption of the ef? cient markets hypothesis (Fama, 1970), NPI announcements bring unanticipated information into ? nancial markets that may change the market value assessments of the announcing ? rms. In response to the new information, changes in stock prices occur, which represent investors' revision of their expectation with regard to the net present value of a ? rm's risk-adjusted expected cash ? ow generated by the new products, or stated differently, the investors' expectation of the wealth impact of NPIs.This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides the theoretical background and develops the hypotheses. Section 3 introduces the sample and methodology. The empirical res ults are presented in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 contains the discussion and concluding remarks of this study. 2. Theoretical background and hypotheses International diversi? cation has been suggested by FDI theory and portfolio theory to provide ? rms with bene? ts ranging from the ability to realize scale economies (Grant, 1987; Porter, 1986), the possibility to spread investment risks over different countries (Kim et al. 1993), the potential to arbitrage factor cost differentials across multiple locations (Kogut, 1985) and the opportunity to access resources resident in foreign countries (Hitt et al. , 1997). However, there is considerable theoretical evidence that international diversi? cation comes with both bene? ts and costs. We suggest that that these bene? ts and costs that accompany foreign expansion may create both opportunities and challenges for ? rms in terms of developing new products, and thereby affect the stock market reactions to NPI announcements.In this secti on, we review various theoretical domains in order to identify the channels through which international diversi? cation might in? uence value creation for ? rms in the context of NPIs. 2. 1. Effects of international diversi? cation International diversi? cation provides several advantages towards developing new products. First, international diversi? cation offers opportunities for ? rms to gain new and diverse ideas from a variety of perspectives (Hitt et al. , 1997). Being exposed to heterogeneous customers, technology, cultures, and competitive practices, internationally diversi? d ? rms are able to learn from the experience in foreign operations to ? nd new solutions to bettering product design and improving the quality of manufacturing know-how (Craig and Douglas, 2000). For example, the launch of a new cordless telephone by Sanyo, which had been adjusted to better meet the phone use habits of American consumers (Barkema and Vermeulen, 1998), consequently expanded the company's sales in the U. S. market. 3 Prior studies have used several ways to measure the performance of innovation, which includes R intensity (Hill and Snell, 1988; Hitt et al. 1997), number of NPIs (Cardinal and Opler, 1995; Hitt et al. , 1996) and number of patents (Francis and Smith, 1995). Though they have provided valuable insights, the measures they developed have some limitations in capturing the true value of innovation (Chaney et al. , 1991; Schankerman and Pakes, 1986). For example, R intensity is more related to the input value of innovation but does not directly measure the output value of innovation. Furthermore, numbers of NPIs or patents only measure the quantity of inventive output without considering the quality of innovation.As well, patent counts often represent a very noisy measure of the underlying value of innovation because most patents are not worth anything. The measure used in our study allows us to directly measure the wealth effect of innovation, rather than on ly considering the quantity of inventive output as has been done in prior studies. C. -F. Wang et al. / Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 335 International diversi? cation also allows ? rms to gain access to resources that may only be available in foreign markets but not frequently obtainable in the home countries to develop new products (Peng and Wang, 2000).By tapping into the technological skills and knowledge that originates from other countries, multinational ? rms may be able to successfully increase their technological strength in developing new products (Hitt et al. , 1997; Kotabe, 1990; Peng and Wang, 2000; Subramaniam and Venkatraman, 2001). Moreover, international diversi? cation provides a ? rm with a wider national network, which helps increase its ability to effectively leverage technological resources and rationalize production processes. These economies of scale can enable the ? m to obtain higher returns from new product innovations (Bartl ett and Ghoshal, 1989; Kogut, 1985). Furthermore, the broader market outlets available to new products create higher returns on the sunk costs of innovative spending (Subramaniam and Venkatraman, 2001), while cash ? ows generated from large-scale foreign operations provide ? rms with the resources needed for extra investment in new product development (Kobrin, 1991; Kotabe, 1990). Notwithstanding the above bene? ts, international diversi? cation can bring challenges to the development of new products. The ? rst challenge comes from the dif? ulty in transferring technological knowledge between countries. The more countries within which the ? rm operates, the larger geographic distance the technological know-how has to be transferred, and the less effective the ? rm will be in developing new products. Furthermore, with increasing diversi? cation, the differences in cultural, economic and technological settings among the countries increase. These differences reduce the effectiveness in assimilating and applying the technological knowledge that is critical for new product development (Chang and Wang, 2007; Hitt et al. 1997); while knowledge diversity can create greater learning value (Inkpen, 2000), differences in knowledge does not guarantee successful learning (Bowman and Helfat, 2001; Chang and Singh, 2000; Szulanski and Winter, 2002). In addition, arguments from the economic law of diminishing returns suggest that the higher degree of international diversi? cation a ? rm is involved in, the more likely it is to be entering markets whose marginal contributions are relatively minor (Contractor et al. , 2003). Beyond a certain point, after already having expanded into the most advantageous markets, the ? m is left with minor or peripheral foreign markets whose resources for and cash ? ow from new product development will exhibit diminishing returns. By drawing on various theoretical perspectives, the above discussions suggest that international diversi? cation no t only create opportunities but also impose barriers to the value creation provided by new product innovation. With moderate levels of international diversi? cation, ? rms can capitalize on valuable bene? ts of knowledge learning, resource access and production ef? ciency in producing new products.At the same time, economic pro? ts rise as the ? xed costs of new product development are spread across more markets (Kogut, 1985; Porter, 1986). However, ? rms that expand internationally beyond an optimal level may ? nd that the costs of international diversi? cation eventually exceed the bene? ts. Firms at this stage often enter countries that are more geographically and culturally dissimilar, which increases the dif? culties of transferring technological knowledge between countries. The value of new product innovation may also exhibit diminishing returns when international diversi? ation is increased beyond the optimal level. Based on the above, this study proposes a non-linear and inv erted-U-shaped relationship between international diversi? cation and the stock market reactions to NPI announcements, suggesting that the market value of NPIs is expected to improve with increasing international diversi? cation at lower levels of international diversi? cation and then decline with increasing international diversi? cation at higher levels of international diversi? cation. For these reasons, we propose our ? rst hypothesis as follows: Hypothesis 1.The relationship between international diversi? cation and the stock market reactions to NPI announcements is inverted-U-shaped, with a positive slope at lower levels of international diversi? cation and negative at higher levels of international diversi? cation. We utilize event-study methodology to capture the valuation effect of corporate new product strategies. This approach not only permits direct investigation of changes in announcing ? rms' shareholder value, but is also suited to conduct cross-sectional analysis of the strategies underlying the value creation or destruction (Reuer, 2001).Applying event-study methodology to NPIs also facilitates comparisons with previous studies on other corporate major strategic events. 4 2. 2. Interaction effects of intangible assets and international diversi? cation Although our theoretical framework should hold for all ? rms, the effect of international diversi? cation on new product performance may depend on ? rms' intangible assets. Scholars in international business have shown that multinational ? rms with greater marketing and technological capabilities may receive higher returns from international expansion (Kotabe et al. , 2002; Lu andBeamish, 2004). Other researchers also document the importance of marketing and technological capabilities in the success of new products (e. g. , Cooper and Kleinschmidt, 1987; Danneels, 2002; Krasnikov and Jayachandran, 2008; Moorman and Slotegraaf, 1999; Yeoh and Roth, 1999). We make advances in linking these two stre ams of study by investigating the moderating effect 4 Previous studies have used event-study methodology to test the wealth effect of major corporate events, such as diversi? cation (Doukas and Lang, 2003; Hoskisson et al. , 1991), divestitures (Benou et al. , 2008), alliances (Das et al. 1998; Kale et al. , 2002), regulatory change (Bowman and Navissi, 2003), NPIs (Chaney et al. , 1991; Chen, 2008; Kelm et al. , 1995), R expenditures (Szewczyk et al. , 1996), and patents (Austin, 1993). 336 C. -F. Wang et al. / Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 of internal capabilities on the association between international diversi? cation and the stock market reactions to NPI announcements. We suggest that internationally diversi? ed ? rms that have greater marketing and technological capabilities are more able to extract the bene? ts and reduce the costs of international diversi? ation, resulting in higher returns from NPI announcements. Each moderating effect is disc ussed independently below. Marketing capability is related to a ? rm's ability to acquire external knowledge through the processes of gathering, interpreting, and using market information (Day, 1994). Though international diversi? cation gives ? rms opportunities to access new knowledge, ? rms that do not have ability to identify customers' needs and to understand the factors that in? uence consumer choice behavior will not be able to achieve better targeting and positioning of its products.Therefore, ? rms that have invested in developing their marketing capability are more able to integrate the information on consumer needs in diverse markets into new product designs, and thus generate higher returns from the new products (Dutta et al. , 1999). In addition, marketing capability is re? ected in a ? rm's ability to differentiate its products from those of competitors (Kotabe et al. , 2002). A higher level of product differentiation allows a ? rm to charge higher prices for its new p roducts (Day, 1994; Yeoh and Roth, 1999). Furthermore, ? ms that spend more money on advertising and promoting their products are more likely to build successful brands, which are essential to building awareness, reducing the perceived risk that consumers associate with new products, and ? nally increasing the adoption rate of new products introduced (Chandy and Tellis, 2000; Dowling and Staelin, 1994; Sorescu et al. , 2003). This is particularly important for ? rms that are completely new to foreign customers (Helsen et al. , 1993; Srivastava et al. , 1998). Consequently, we expect that NPIs are expected to be more worthwhile for internationally diversi? d ? rms with greater marketing capabilities, leading to Hypothesis 2: Hypothesis 2. Marketing capability will positively moderate the relationship between international diversi? cation and the stock market reactions to NPI announcements. As mentioned, technological capability is also likely to moderate the effect of international d iversi? cation on new product development. Technology capability might represent a ? rm's ability to absorb external knowledge (Penner-Hahn and Shaver, 2005; Tsai, 2001). A ? rm may be able to access certain new knowledge through international diversi? ation, but without the capacity to absorb such knowledge a ? rm may not enhance its capabilities within new product innovation. Since knowledge gained from international markets is often tacit and socially complex (Zahra and Hayton, 2008), ? rms that have established a capability in a particular research skill are better able to interpret and assess the knowledge in that area. Technological capability also refers to a ? rm's ability to apply knowledge gained from foreign markets to commercial ends (Krasnikov and Jayachandran, 2008; Moorman and Slotegraaf, 1999).Kotabe et al. (2002) have stated that ? rms with greater technological capabilities are more capable of ? nding better product design solutions. The technical risks in developi ng new products are more likely to be reduced for such ? rms (Kelm et al. , 1995). Furthermore, ? rms with greater technological capability are more able to lower production costs by improving manufacturing processes. Moreover, technological capability helps ? rms to speed up the product development process and satisfy the market more quickly (Rabino and Moskowitz, 1981). Thus, ? ms that have greater technological capabilities are more likely to enhance their revenues in international markets by providing those markets with new products of better quality. Meanwhile, ? rms that leverage their technological capabilities in the greater scope of the global market may enjoy the bene? ts of economies of scale inherent in the innovation process. As a result, we expect that NPIs are more worthwhile for internationally diversi? ed ? rms with greater technological capabilities, leading to Hypothesis 3: Hypothesis 3. Technological capability will positively moderate the relationship between in ternational diversi? ation and the stock market reactions to NPI announcements. 3. Sample and methodology 3. 1. Sample design We test our hypotheses using a sample of NPI announcement events. We collect the sample data on ? rms listed on either the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) or the American Stock Exchange (AMEX) from the Dow Jones News Retrieval Service (DJNRS) database, which provides news-service articles and selected stories from the Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones News Wire, and Barron's. We use the words and phrases commonly used to describe NPIs as keys for a database search routine.Examples are â€Å"introduce,† â€Å"new product,† â€Å"unveil,† â€Å"launch,† â€Å"received approval,† â€Å"to market,† â€Å"test market,† â€Å"begin selling,† along with other pertinent words and phrases. When a repeat NPI announcement from a ? rm is found in a different publication, the announcement that has the earliest date is ch osen as it is the earliest date when the information about the NPI is publicly available (Chaney et al. , 1991; Chen, 2008; Kelm et al. , 1995). The sample period is from January 1997 to December 2005. Four criteria are used when selecting ? rms for our sample: (1) the announcing ? rms should not have other announcements ? e days before and after the initial announcement date in order to avoid any confounding events that could distort the measurement of the valuation effects; (2) daily stock return information must be available from the Center for Research in Security Prices (CRSP), with a minimum of 50 daily returns in the estimation period; (3) companies' ? nancial information must be available from the COMPUSTAT ? les; and (4) since we want to test the effect of international diversi? cation, only those ? rms with foreign sales data available from the COMPUSTAT ? les are included. C. -F. Wang et al. Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 337 Following these procedures, we collect a ? nal sample comprising 3061 new product announcements made by 531 ? rms in 57 industries based on the two-digit Standard Industrial Classi? cation (SIC) codes. 5 Table 1 reports the distribution of the sample by year and industry. Our data shows no obvious cluster by time period. In 2004, there are 530 announcements, accounting for 17. 32% of the total. Observations are nearly evenly distributed through the remaining years. However, our sample shows certain levels of concentration in speci? c industries.The largest concentration comes from electrical equipment (33. 61%), computer equipment (18. 09%), electro-medical instruments (9. 38%), and business services (e. g. , computer programming and the software industry) (7. 19%). These three broad categories constitute nearly 70% of the total sample. As suggested by Chaney et al. (1991), this result is expected since neither the investment opportunities nor their valuation should be random across industries. 3. 2. Measuring the stock market responses to new product announcements We employ the event study methodology to examine the stock price responses to the announcements of NPIs. This approach has been widely used in the management, accounting, economics and ? nance disciplines to examine the impact of ? rm-speci? c events on ? rm value. The event study approach suggests that, in an ef? cient capital market, the market will adjust and result in returns different from those that are normally expected if the NPI announcement has unexpected information content (Hoskisson et al. , 1991). We use the market model suggested by Brown and Warner (1985) to estimate the abnormal returns to NPI announcements. This model captures a ? rm's stock price change after adjusting for general market-wide factors and the ? m's systematic risk (Bowman, 1983; Brown, 1989; Brown and Warner, 1980, 1985). The abnormal return for ? rm i on day t, ARit, is computed by: ARit = Rit ? E? Rit = It ? 1 ? ; where Rit is ? rm i's actual returns on day t, and It ? 1 represents the information set available to the market about the ? rm at time t ? 1. The expected return for ? rm i on day t is estimated by: E? Rit = It ? 1 ? = ? i + ? i Rmt where Rmt is the return for the market portfolio on day t, ? i is the intercept, and ? i measures the risk or sensitivity of the ? rm's returns relative to the market portfolio. We de? e Day 0 (t = 0) as the initial announcement date. We use the value-weighted CRSP Index as the proxy for the market portfolio. The parameters ? i and ? i are estimated using data for the period of 200 to 60 days before the initial announcement date. The two-day cumulative abnormal returns, CAR (? 1, 0), are estimated by summing the daily abnormal returns over the window period of days ? 1 and 0. The equally weighted cross-sectional average abnormal returns on ? event day t, ARt , is further calculated by: 1N ? ARt = ? ARit ; N i=1 where N is the total number of sample NPIs. The cumulati ve average abnormal return over the period (? , 0) is similarly de? ned. 3. 3. Measuring international diversi? cation We use the entropy index to estimate international diversi? cation. 7 The entropy measure of international diversi? cation is de? ned as ? [Pi* ln(1/Pi)], where Pi is the percentage of sales in geographic segment i, and ln(1/Pi) is the weight of each geographic segment. This measure thus considers both the number of geographic segments in which a ? rm operates and the relative importance of sales contributed by each geographic segment. 5 For the industry classi? cation, we follow Hitt et al. (1997) and use the our-digit SIC codes as the indicator of the industry or business segment that a ? rm operates. Therefore, two variables in this study, namely product diversi? cation and industry R&D intensity, are estimated basing on the four-digit SIC codes. However, for the sake of brevity, we report the sample distribution by industry on the basis of the two-digit SIC code s. 6 Other performance measures of new product strategies that are most commonly used in previous studies include return on assets, return on sales, return on equity, return on investment and pro? t margin (e. g. , Li and Atuahene-Gima, 2001; Moorman, 1995).However, these accounting measures have several limitations in measuring new product performance (Chang and Wang, 2007; Kalyanaram et al. , 1995; Pauwels et al. , 2004). For example, the differences in accounting policies across ? rms make performance comparisons dif? cult. These measures are also not risk-adjusted as they do not consider business risks associated with individual ? rms when measuring performance, and they are based on historical accounting data and thus may not adequately re? ect future expected revenue streams resulting from the new products. More importantly, these measures re? ect aggregate ? m performance, making it more dif? cult to directly link them to the effect of speci? c new product introductions. Due to these limitations we employ an event study methodology in order to examine stock price responses to announcements of NPIs. This method captures the ? rm's stock price change after adjusting for the ? rm's systematic risk (Bowman, 1983; Brown, 1989; Brown and Warner, 1980, 1985), as well as re? ects investors' expectations of a ? rm's future cash ? ow related to this new product (Chaney et al. , 1991; Chen, 2008; Chen et al. , 2002; Kelm et al. , 1995). 7 Previous studies have used several proxies of international diversi? ation. The most commonly used measures are the ratio of foreign sales to total sales (Grant, 1987; Tallman and Li, 1996), the ratio of foreign assets to total assets (Daniels and Bracker, 1989; Ramaswamy, 1995), numbers of foreign countries in which a ? rm has subsidiaries (Delios and Beamish, 1999; Tallman and Li, 1996) or a composite index encompassing these three dimensions (Gomes and Ramaswamy, 1999; Sullivan, 1994). However, these measures only capture the extent but not the distribution of international diversi? cation. In this study, we follow Hitt et al. (1997) and use the entropy measure of international diversi? ation to account for the extent of sales in global markets and their weighting. C. -F. Wang et al. / Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 338 Table 1 Distribution of new product introduction. Panel A. Sample distribution by year Year Number of announcements Percent of sample (%) 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total 354 279 370 313 232 247 391 530 345 3061 11. 56 9. 11 12. 08 10. 22 7. 58 8. 07 12. 77 17. 32 11. 30 100. 00 Panel B. Sample distribution by industry Two-digit SIC code Industry group 01 12 13 15 16 17 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 33 34 Agricultural production cropsCoal mining Oil and gas extraction Building construction: general contractors Heavy construction other than building construction contractors Construction: special trade contractors Food and kindred produc ts Tobacco products Textile mill products Apparel, ? nished prdcts from fabrics and similar materials Lumber and wood products, except furniture Furniture and ? xtures Paper and allied products Printing, publishing, and allied industries Chemicals and allied products Petroleum re? ning and related industries Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products Leather and leather products Primary metal industriesFabricated metal products, except machinery and transportation equipment Industrial and commercial machinery and computer equipment Electronic and other electrical equipment and components, except computer equipment Transportation equipment Measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments; photographic, medical and optical goods Miscellaneous manufacturing industries Railroad transportation Motor freight transportation and warehousing Transportation by air Pipelines, except natural gas Transportation services Communications Electric, gas, and sanitary services Wholesale trade: durabl e goods Wholesale trade: non-durable goodsBuilding materials, hardware, garden supply, and mobile home dealers General merchandise stores Food stores Apparel and accessory stores Home furniture, furnishings, and equipment stores Eating and drinking places Miscellaneous retail Depository institutions Non-depository credit institutions Security and commodity brokers, dealers, exchanges, and services Insurance carriers Insurance agents, brokers, and service Real estate Holding and other investment of? ces Hotels, rooming houses, camps, and other lodging places Personal services 35 36 37 38 39 40 42 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 67 0 72 Number of announcements Percent of sample (%) 1 1 8 1 1 1 28 4 2 2 3 6 13 76 118 2 9 2 23 21 0. 03 0. 03 0. 26 0. 03 0. 03 0. 03 0. 91 0. 13 0. 07 0. 07 0. 10 0. 20 0. 42 2. 48 3. 85 0. 07 0. 29 0. 07 0. 75 0. 69 554 1029 18. 09 33. 61 72 287 2. 35 9. 38 41 4 2 144 1 1 120 20 19 10 2 3 3 8 6 14 13 2 18 17 34 5 3 9 6 6 1. 34 0. 13 0. 07 4. 70 0. 03 0. 03 3. 92 0. 65 0. 62 0. 33 0. 07 0. 10 0. 10 0. 26 0. 20 0. 46 0. 42 0. 07 0. 59 0. 56 1. 11 0. 16 0. 10 0. 29 0. 20 0. 20 C. -F. Wang et al. / Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 339 Table 1 (continued) Panel B. Sample distribution by industryTwo-digit SIC code Industry group 73 78 79 80 82 87 Business services Motion pictures Amusement and recreation services Health services Educational services Engineering, accounting, research, management, and related services Nonclassi? able establishments 99 Total Number of announcements Percent of sample (%) 220 13 4 2 1 10 7. 19 0. 42 0. 13 0. 07 0. 03 0. 33 36 3061 1. 18 100. 00 As data is not available at the country level, we use sales of regional markets to measure international diversity (as used by e. g. , Hirsch and Lev, 1971; Hitt et al. , 1997; Miller and Pras, 1980). Following Hitt et al. 1997), we group foreign markets into four regions based on economic and political conditions: Africa, Asia and the Paci? c, Europe, and the Americas. Although not perfect, this approach allows us to focus on between-market heterogeneity (Kim et al. , 1989). The international market sales data are from the COMPUSTAT geographic segment tapes for the ? scal year preceding the announcements. 8 3. 4. Measuring intangible assets We measure marketing capability as the average marketing intensity (the ratio of advertisement expenditures to net sales) for the three ? scal years prior to the announcements. 9 We suggest that ? ms who invest more in marketing activities are considered to have superior marketing capabilities. We measure technological capability as the average R&D intensity (the ratio of R&D expenditures to net sales) for the three ? scal years prior to the announcements. We suggest that ? rms outspending their competitors in R&D are considered to have greater technological capabilities. We scale the measures of ? rm capabilities by ? rm size in order to ensure that the capability measure does not merely re? ect higher levels of ? nancial resources of large-scaled ? rms (following Moorman and Slotegraaf, 1999). 3. 5. Other variablesOther potential variables that could affect the value of NPIs are controlled. The ? rst is ? rm size, measured by the natural logarithm of total sales of the announcing ? rm for the ? scal year preceding the announcement (following Kotabe et al. , 2002; Lu and Beamish, 2004). We next control for a ? rm's leverage ratio, measured as the ratio of total debt to total assets for the ? scal year prior to the announcement (following Chen et al. , 2002; Chen, 2008). We also control for the degree of product diversi? cation for the ? scal year preceding the announcement. Product diversi? cation is measured by the entropy index (? Pi * ln(1/Pi)], where Pi is the percentage of ? rm sales in business segment i, and ln(1/Pi) is the weight of each segment). Following Hitt et al. (1997), we de? ne business segments as those having the same four-digit SIC codes. The product-speci? c effects are also controlled. This is necessary as some researchers have suggested that high-newness products are expected to create better opportunities for product differentiation and competitive advantage (Kleinschmidt and Cooper, 1991; Meyer and Roberts, 1986), and as such, high-newness products should receive a larger market value than updates of existing products.Furthermore, scholars have argued that ? rms introducing multiple products are more competitive in the product market and seize more market share than those announcing single products. This implies that ? rms announcing multipleproducts announcers may appropriate much of the bene? ts associated with new products, and are thus expected to experience a larger increase in market value than those announcing a single product (Acs and Audretsch, 1988; Hendricks and Singhal, 1997). Moreover, researchers have documented that the ? rst to introduce a new product in the marketplac e usually enjoys ? st-mover advantages stemming from the creation of entry barriers and switching costs, and from high consumer recognition and preference to the ? rst product (Jovanovic and MacDonald, 1994; Lee et al. , 2000). Therefore, ? rst-moving ? rms are predicted to gain a higher announcement return at the time of NPIs than followers do. The aforementioned ? rms that introduce high-newness and multiple products or ? rms that are the ? rst to introduce new products are suggested to obtain sustained competitive advantage. This argument corresponds to Williamson (1999) that ? ms getting ahead of their competitors by providing multiple and new technology, products and business solutions have more opportunities to ensure lasting sales growth. We identify these product announcement types by using structural content analysis on the news content (as in Chaney et al. , 1991; Lee et al. , 2000; Firth and Narayanan, 1996). Based on the analysis of the news content, we create three dumm y variables: NEWNESS, MULTIPLE and TIME. 8 The main reason for using data one year before the announcements is to capture the most recent impact of a ? m's attributes on the market reactions to new product introductions. Several independent variables are measured by the data one year preceding the announcements, including international diversi? cation, ? rm size, debt-to-asset ratio, product diversi? cation and two industry sector dummy variables. 9 Since the values of advertising and R&D expenditures tend to ? uctuate substantially from year to year, we use the 3-year average values of advertising intensity, R&D intensity and industry R&D intensity to reduce the chance that a random and extreme value in one year disproportionately in? ences our measure of intangible assets. 340 C. -F. Wang et al. / Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 NEWNESS equals one if the product is highly innovative, and zero if it is an update or an enhancement of an existing product (as in Chaney et al. , 1991; Chen, 2008). MULTIPLE equals one for multiple-products announced simultaneously by a ? rm, and zero for single announcements (as in Chaney et al. , 1991; Chen, et al. , 2002). TIME equals one if the announcing ? rm is the ? rst mover, and zero otherwise (as in Lee et al. , 2000; Chen, 2008).Finally, we consider two industry-related factors. The ? rst is the technological opportunity of the industry in which the announcing ? rms operate. Chaney et al. (1991) asserted that the valuation effect of NPIs is higher for ? rms in more technologically based industries, as they are considered to have more innovation opportunities and greater potential for future growth. In contrast, Kelm et al. (1995) found that investors respond positively to new product announcements by ? rms in less-technology-intensive industries because new product announcements by these ? rms are relatively nexpected by investors. Technological opportunities at the industry level are measure d by the average industry R&D intensity (the average values of R&D expenditures divided by net sales for all ? rms in the same four-digit SIC industry) for the three ? scal years prior to the announcements (following Chan et al. , 1990; Kelm et al. , 1995). In addition, we control for the industry-speci? c effect with two dummy variables: MANUFACTURING and SERVICE. MANUFACTURING equals one for announcing ? rms in manufacturing industries, and zero otherwise. SERVICE equals one for announcing ? ms in service industries, and zero otherwise. This is done as several studies have argued that the effect of internationality on performance for manufacturing ? rms is different from that for service ? rms (Capar and Kotabe, 2003; Contractor et al. , 2003). We therefore separate the sample ? rms into service, manufacturing and other industries according to 2-digit SIC codes and apply two industry dummies to control for the industry-speci? c effects. Table 2 presents the means, standard deviati ons, and correlations for all variables for the sample of NPI announcements. 4. Empirical resultsTable 3 provides estimates of abnormal returns around the announcement date and the surrounding days. The results show that innovations such as NPIs are perceived by investors as value-increasing activities. For the two-day announcement period cumulative abnormal returns, CAR (? 1, 0), the new product announcers experience a positive cumulative average abnormal return of 0. 194%, signi? cant at the 1% con? dence level. No signi? cant abnormal returns are observed preceding and following the announcement period. As a result, we use CAR (? 1, 0) as the dependent variable in the following regression analysis.Our results are consistent with prior studies (e. g. , Chaney et al. , 1991; Chen, 2008; Chen et al. , 2002; Kelm et al. , 1995). Table 4 reports the regression results with the dependent variable CAR (? 1, 0). We present the results without centering the variables in the ? rst ? ve mod els, and results with centering the variables on their means in the latter ? ve models. 10 Models 1 and 6 are baseline models that include only the control variables and two measures of intangible assets. Among the control variables, leverage ratio is found to be positively associated with CAR (? 1, 0), though insigni? cant in some models.This result suggests that higher levels of debt lower the expected costs of free cash ? ow (Jensen, 1986), and new products announced by ? rms with a higher leverage ratio are therefore perceived as more worthwhile. Of the two ? rm-speci? c assets variables, both R&D and advertising intensities have a signi? cant and positive impact in most models. Moreover, industry R&D intensity is found to be signi? cantly negatively associated with CAR (? 1, 0). This result suggests that investors respond positively to new product announcements by ? rms in less technology-intensive industries because new product announcements by these ? ms are relatively unexpe cted by investors (Kelm et al. , 1995). Other control variables are not found to have signi? cant explanatory power in terms of the variation in announcement abnormal returns. In model 2 (7), we test the impact of international diversi? cation on the stock market reactions to NPI announcements by including the linear and squared terms of international diversi? cation. We ? nd our Hypothesis 1 is strongly supported, as CAR (? 1, 0) is positively related to the linear term of international diversi? cation and then negatively associated to the squared term of international diversi? cation.This result suggests an inverted-U-shaped relationship between international diversi? cation and the market value of NPIs. Models 3 (8), 4 (9) and 5 (10) test the moderating effects of intangible assets by including the interaction term of international diversi? cation and advertising intensity and the interaction term of international diversi? cation and R&D intensity. 11 Model 3 (8) tests the intera ction effect between international diversi? cation and marketing capability. The statistically signi? cant and positive coef? cient of the interaction term suggests that the market value of NPIs increases when internationally diversi? d ? rms have greater marketing capacities. Thus, Hypothesis 2 is supported. Model 4 (9) tests the interaction effect between international diversi? cation and technological capability. We also ? nd a statistically signi? cant and positive coef? cient of the interaction term. Thus, Hypothesis 3 is supported. To test the robustness of these ? ndings, we simultaneously include the interaction of international diversi? cation and advertising intensity and the interaction of international diversi? cation and R&D intensity in model 5 (10). Results remain unchanged to those in models 3 (8) and 4 (9).It is noted that the â€Å"main effects† between international diversi? cation and the abnormal returns of NPIs remain robust in all models with the additi on of the interaction terms. To gain further insights into our ? ndings, we construct Figs. 1 and 2 by drawing on the results of models 3 and 4. We use CAR (? 1, 0) as the measurement of market value of NPIs. When illustrating the impact of advertising intensity (R&D intensity) and 10 Since some variables are constructed from other variables, we follow Aiken and West (1991) by subtracting each variable from its mean value in the sample to minimize their collinearity. 11To test the robustness of our conclusion, we re-examine the regression analysis by incorporating the interaction of quadratic terms of international diversi? cation and intangible asset proxies. Our conclusions remain unchanged. Variables a Mean s. d. Min Max 1. Two-day announcementperiod abnormal return(%)a 2. International diversi? cation 3. Advertising intensity 4. R&D intensity 5. Product diversi? cation 6. Firm size b 7. Debt-to-asset ratio 8. Newness 9. Multiple 10. Time 11. Industry R&D intensity 12. Service in dustry 13. Manufacturing industry 0. 194 0. 037 ? 0. 242 0. 230 0. 653 0. 012 0. 081 0. 816 8. 541 0. 00 0. 827 0. 302 0. 359 0. 236 0. 236 0. 748 0. 424 0. 022 0. 148 0. 659 1. 860 0. 149 0. 379 0. 459 0. 480 0. 390 0. 425 0. 434 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 ? 0. 781 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 1. 382 0. 317 4. 696 2. 533 12. 060 1. 099 1. 000 1. 000 1. 000 2. 334 1. 000 1. 000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. 000 ? 0. 033* 1. 000 0. 102*** ? 0. 071*** 1. 000 ? 0. 004 ? 0. 042** ? 0. 016 1. 000 0. 149*** 0. 092*** ? 0. 158*** 0. 399*** 1. 000 ? 0. 111*** 0. 001 ? 0. 090*** 0. 052*** 0. 075*** 1. 000 0. 036** ? 0. 002 0. 010 ? 0. 003 0. 027 ? 0. 021 1. 000 9 0. 076*** 0. 050*** 0. 015 ? 0. 024 0. 016 ? 0. 100*** 0. 33* 1. 000 The two-day period (? 1,0) abnormal return is estimated by summing up abnormal returns from the day before (day ? 1) to the announcement date (day 0). Firm size is measured by the natural logarithm of net sales. ***p b 0. 01, **pb0. 05, *pb0. 1. b 10 11 12 13 0. 045** ? 0. 022 0. 056*** 0. 039** 0. 024 ? 0. 050*** 0. 170*** ? 0. 040** 1. 000 0. 257*** ? 0. 083*** 0. 252*** ? 0. 042** ? 0. 188*** ? 0. 098*** 0. 031* 0. 039** 0. 055*** 1. 000 ? 0. 382*** 0. 000 ? 0. 137*** ? 0. 206*** ? 0. 020 0. 199*** ? 0. 007 ? 0. 147*** ? 0. 064*** ? 0. 151*** 1. 000 0. 342*** 0. 017 0. 143*** 0. 151*** ? 0. 017 ? 0. 222*** . 009 0. 147*** 0. 068*** 0. 166*** ? 0. 960*** 1. 000 C. -F. Wang et al. / Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 Table 2 Descriptive statistics and correlations. 341 342 C. -F. Wang et al. / Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 Table 3 Abnormal returns for new product introduction announcements. Event day Mean AR (%) t-statistic ? 10 ?9 ?8 ?7 ?6 ?5 ?4 ?3 ?2 ?1 0 [? 1,0] +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 + 10 ? 0. 023 ? 0. 005 0. 025 ? 0. 016 ? 0. 025 ? 0. 005 0. 047 0. 001 ? 0. 039 0. 093 0. 101 0. 194 ? 0. 038 0. 058 0. 081 ? 0. 056 0. 027 ? 0. 073 ? 0. 055 0. 053 ? 0. 025 ? 0. 054 ? 0. 4 50 0. 092 0. 471 ? 0. 309 ? 0. 477 ? 0. 099 0. 888 0. 003 ? 0. 731 1. 918* 2. 038** 2. 885*** ? 0. 756 1. 086 1. 329 ? 1. 138 0. 529 ? 1. 403 ? 1. 078 1. 118 ? 0. 471 ? 0. 972 (0. 653) (0. 927) (0. 638) (0. 758) (0. 633) (0. 921) (0. 375) (0. 998) (0. 465) (0. 055) (0. 042) (0. 004) (0. 450) (0. 278) (0. 184) (0. 255) (0. 597) (0. 161) (0. 281) (0. 264) (0. 638) (0. 331) ***p b 0. 01, **p b 0. 05. Values in parentheses are p-values. international diversi? cation on CAR (? 1, 0), we hold other control variables at the average level. If the control variables are dummy ones, we substitute these variables with their modes. 2 Both ? gures provide supportive evidence for our hypotheses. First, the relationship between international diversi? cation and the market value of NPIs is found to be inverted-U-shaped, with the slope positive at lower levels of international diversi? cation but negative at higher levels of international diversi? cation. For example, in Fig. 1, for ? rms with no mar keting capability, at the initial stage, there is a positive impact on the market value of NPIs with an increase of 0. 62% in CAR (? 1, 0) when the level of international diversi? cation increases from zero to 0. 8. Beyond this threshold of 0. , a higher level of international diversi? cation is associated with a decreasing CAR (? 1, 0). In Fig. 2, for ? rms with no technological capability, there is a positive impact on the market value of NPIs with an increase of 0. 63% in CAR (? 1, 0) when the level of international diversi? cation increases from zero to 0. 8. Beyond this point, more international diversi? cation results in lower market values of NPIs. In addition, these graphs illustrate the performance differences across ? rms with different levels of intangible assets. For example, in Fig. 1, for a ? rm with a degree of international diversi? cation of 0. and a level of marketing capability of 0. 3, there is an expected CAR (? 1, 0) that is almost 0. 89% higher than that for a ? rm at the same level of international diversi? cation but with the marketing capability of 0. 1; at a degree of international diversi? cation of 1. 2, there is an expected improvement in CAR (? 1, 0) of 3. 25% when the level of marketing capability increases from 0. 1 to 0. 3. The same procedure can be used to explain the moderating effect of technological capability. In Fig. 2, for a ? rm with a level of international diversi? cation of 0. 4 and a level of technology capability of 1. , there is an expected CAR (? 1, 0) that is 2. 09% higher than that for a ? rm at the same level of international diversi? cation but with the technological capability of 0. 4; at a degree of international diversi? cation of 1. 2, there is an expected improvement in CAR (? 1, 0) of 4. 92% when the technology capability of a ? rm increases from 0. 4 to 1. 6. 5. Discussion and conclusions This paper examines the importance of international diversi? cation in explaining the stock market reactions to NP I announcements. Using NPI announcements from the period 1997–2005, we found an inverted-U-shaped relationship between international diversi? ation and the market value of NPIs, with a slope positive at lower levels of international diversi? cation but negative at higher levels of international diversi? cation. This relationship is moderated by the intangible assets possessed by internationally diversi? ed ? rms. We ? nd that announcing ? rms with greater technological and/or marketing capabilities achieve higher abnormal returns from NPIs. The main effects of the international diversi? cation variables still hold after the inclusion of these moderating factors. In view of recent research having suggested a sigmoid performance effect of internationalization (Contractor et al. 2003; Lu and Beamish, 2004), we test our hypotheses in the framework of an S-shaped relationship by simultaneously adding linear, squared and cubed terms of international diversi? cation in the regressio n. However, our sample does not reveal the S-shaped association between international diversi? cation and the market value of NPI. 12 The equations for the graphs presented in Figs. 1 and 2 are as follows, respectively: CAR (? 1, 0) = ? 0. 0037 + 0. 0157 * ID ? 0. 0099 * ID2 ? 0. 0147 * AD + 0. 1476 * ID * AD and CAR (? 1, 0) = ? 0. 0049 + 0. 0168 * ID ? 0. 0112 * ID2 + 0. 0056 * RD + 0. 295 * ID * RD, where ID = international diversi? cation; ID2 = International diversi? cation squared; AD = advertising intensity; RD = R&D intensity. C. -F. Wang et al. / Journal of International Management 17 (2011) 333–347 343 Table 4 Regression analysis of new product introduction on international diversi? cation. Un-centered results Centered results Independent variables Model 1 Model 2 Intercept ? 0. 0005 (? 0. 072) ? 0. 0042 ? 0. 0017 ? 0. 0037 ? 0. 0009 (? 0. 591) (? 0. 233) (? 0. 525) (? 0. 122) 0. 0178 0. 0157 0. 0168 0. 0143 (3. 156)*** (2. 737)*** (2. 967)*** (2. 486)** ? 0. 0099 ? 0. 0099 ? 0. 0112 0. 0113 (? 2. 188)** (? 2. 175)** (? 2. 434)** (? 2. 455)** International diversi? cation International diversi? cation squared International diversi? cation ? Advertising intensity International diversi? cation ? R&D intensity Firm size a Debt-to-asset ratio Product diversi? cation Advertising intensity R&D intensity Newness Multiple Time Industry R&D intensity Service Manufacturing Adjusted R2 F value Number of observations a Model 3 Model 4 0. 1476 (2. 236)** ? 0. 0001 ? 0. 0002 (? 0. 336) (? 0. 484) 0. 0072 0. 0071 (1. 531) (1. 516) ? 0. 0001 0. 0000 (? 0. 069) (0. 037) 0. 0667 ? 0. 0147 (2. 100)** (? 0. 04) 0. 0090 0. 0087 (1. 878)* (1. 832)* ? 0. 0003 ? 0. 0002 (? 0. 182) (? 0. 138) 0. 0016 0. 0016 (1. 085) (1. 055) ? 0. 0007 ? 0. 0006 (? 0. 466) (? 0. 407) ? 0. 0034 ? 0. 0032 (? 1. 804)* (? 1. 686)* 0. 0020 ? 0. 0007 (0. 032) (? 1. 121) ? 0. 0005 ? 0. 0015 (? 0. 079) (? 0. 252) 0. 0051 0. 0064 2. 20*** 2. 41*** 3061 3061 Model 6 0. 0036 (0. 637) 0. 1629 (2. 458)** 0. 0295 0. 0003 (0. 676) 0. 0073 (1. 569) ? 0. 0009 (? 0. 744) 0. 0527 (1. 673)* 0. 0093 (1. 941)* ? 0. 0004 (? 0. 195) 0. 0017 (1. 141) ? 0. 0006 (? 0. 389) ? 0. 0018 (? 0. 977) ? 0. 0030 (? 0. 519) ? 0. 0012 (? 0. 218) 0. 0005 1. 15 3061 Model 5Model 7 Model 8 Model 9 0. 0022 0. 0032 0. 0030 0. 0042 (0. 392) (0. 567) (0. 517) (0. 726) 0. 0178 0. 0174 0. 0192 0. 0189 (3. 156)*** (3. 081)*** (3. 375)*** (3. 326)*** ? 0. 0099 ? 0. 0099 ? 0. 0112 ? 0. 0113 (? 2. 188)** (? 2. 175)** (? 2. 434)** (? 2. 455)** 0. 1476 (2. 236)** 0. 0333 (1. 978)** (2. 225)** ? 0. 0001 ? 0. 0002 (? 0. 257) (? 0. 410) 0. 0085 0. 0086 (1. 803)* (1. 824)* ? 0. 0001 0. 0000 (? 0. 102) (0. 012) 0. 0709 ? 0. 0185 (2. 226)** (? 0. 383) 0. 0056 0. 0049 (1. 107) (0. 971) ? 0. 0002 ? 0. 0001 (? 0. 109) (? 0. 051) 0. 0018 0. 0018 (1. 221) (1. 2061) ? 0. 0009 ? 0. 0009 (? 0. 641) (? 0. 99) ? 0. 0046 ? 0. 0046 (? 2. 341)** (? 2. 302)** ? 0. 0005 ? 0. 0016 (? 0. 082) (? 0. 265) ? 0. 0015 ? 0. 0027 (? 0. 252) (? 0. 463) 0. 0060 0. 0077 2. 33*** 2. 58*** 3061 3061 0. 1629 (2. 458)** 0. 0295 0. 0003 (0. 676) 0. 0073 (1. 569) ? 0. 0009 (? 0. 744) 0. 0527 (1. 673)* 0. 0093 (1. 941)* ? 0. 0004 (? 0. 195) 0. 0017 (1. 141) ? 0. 0006 (? 0. 389) ? 0. 0018 (? 0. 977) ? 0. 0003 (? 0. 519) ? 0. 0012 (? 0. 218) 0. 0005 1. 15 3061 Model 10 (1. 978)** ? 0. 0001 ? 0. 0002 ? 0. 0001 (? 0. 336) (? 0. 484) (? 0. 257) 0. 0072 0. 0071 0. 0085 (1. 531) (1. 516) (1. 803)* ? 0. 0001 0. 0000 ? 0. 0001 (? 0. 069) (0. 37) (? 0. 102) 0. 0667 0. 0817 0. 0709 (2. 100)** (2. 517)** (2. 226)** 0. 0090 0. 0087 0. 0249 (1. 878)* (1. 832)* (2. 659)*** ? 0. 0003 ? 0. 0002 ? 0. 0002 (? 0. 182) (? 0. 138) (? 0. 109) 0. 0016 0. 0016 0. 0018 (1. 085) (1. 055) (1. 221) ? 0. 0007 ? 0. 0006 ? 0. 0009 (? 0. 466) (? 0. 407) (? 0. 641) ? 0. 0034 ? 0. 0032 ? 0. 0046 (? 1. 804)* (? 1. 686)* (? 2. 341)** 0. 0020 ? 0. 0007 ? 0. 0005 (0. 032) (? 1. 121) (? 0. 082) ? 0. 0005 ? 0. 0015 ? 0. 0015 (? 0. 079) (? 0. 252) (? 0. 252) 0. 0051 0. 00 64 0. 0060 2. 20*** 2. 41*** 2. 33*** 3061 3061 3061 0. 0333 (2. 225)** ? 0. 0002 (? 0. 410) 0. 0086 (1. 824)*